13th Century Philosophy and Aquinas

Posted on Nov 7, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

Historical and Sociocultural Context

13th Century Europe

The 13th century witnessed the peak of medieval Europe’s flourishing, with France as its political and cultural center. A stable, trade-driven prosperity fueled economic growth, supported by a strong currency, increased circulation of precious metals, and the consolidation of craft guilds. This led to the enrichment of many peasants and members of the bourgeoisie, while the nobility experienced a decline in wealth. Politically, the foundations of modern European states began to emerge: France enjoyed great prestige, England established its first constitutional monarchy, and the papacy reached its zenith with the Bull Unam Sanctum of Boniface VIII.

Cultural Developments

This era saw the rise of universities, evolving from cathedral schools, with Paris, Bologna, and Salamanca as prominent centers. While the Middle Ages is often mischaracterized as a dark age for knowledge, advancements were made in fields like chemistry, astronomy, and medicine. Law also underwent significant development, becoming a tool used by emperors to challenge the papacy’s civil authority. The translation of Greek, Arab, and Jewish philosophical works (Toledo School of Translators) increased, and mendicant orders (Dominicans and Franciscans) were established, destined to hold key positions within the universities. Vernacular literature flourished, and the Gothic style triumphed.

Philosophical Framework

13th Century Thought

The 13th century marked the height of theological and philosophical discussions in the medieval period. Central themes included the distinction between faith and reason (not yet separated), the nature of universals (debates between Platonic-Augustinian, Aristotelian, realist, and nominalist perspectives), and the difference between essence and existence, crucial to Thomistic metaphysics. The relationship between the creator and creation, as well as the creation and preservation of the world, were also explored. The rediscovery of Aristotelian physics and metaphysics proved particularly significant, forming the backbone of the Thomistic synthesis. Latin Averroism, an Arabized interpretation of Aristotle, emerged at the University of Paris. Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas were among the first to Christianize Aristotelian thought.

Thomas Aquinas

Faith and Reason

Aquinas argued against a strict separation of faith and reason, proposing a nuanced relationship with three key aspects:

  1. Distinction: Faith and reason are autonomous powers dealing with different truths.
  2. Overlap: Some truths are preambles to faith and are accessible through reason.
  3. Subordination: While reason operates independently, it is subordinate to faith in cases of conflict, thus avoiding irrational fideism.

Metaphysics

Aquinas believed Aristotelian philosophy was compatible with Christian dogma. He integrated Aristotelian concepts (substance, hylomorphism, act and potency) with non-Aristotelian ideas:

  1. Essence-Existence Distinction: Aquinas differentiated between essence (what a thing is) and existence (that it is). Only God’s essence is identical to his existence.
  2. Participation: Creatures participate in God’s being, imitating his perfection.
  3. Causality: God is the ultimate cause of all beings.
  4. Degrees of Being: A hierarchical view of existence, with beings closer to God possessing greater perfection.

Theology: The Five Ways

Aquinas offered five proofs for God’s existence, arguing from a posteriori observations:

  1. Motion: Everything that moves is moved by another, leading to an unmoved mover.
  2. Causality: Every effect has a cause, leading to an uncaused cause.
  3. Contingency: Contingent beings rely on a necessary being.
  4. Degrees of Perfection: Varying degrees of perfection imply a perfect being.
  5. World Order: The order in the world suggests an intelligent designer.

Anthropology and Epistemology

Aquinas held an anthropological dualism of body and soul (immortal, given by God). The soul has lower (animal) and higher (rational) powers. Knowledge is acquired through empirical and rational means. The theory of abstraction involves four stages: sensory perception, retention in memory, abstraction of the universal form, and understanding of the form.

Ethico-Political Thought

Aquinas’s ethics are hedonistic and teleological, aiming for ultimate happiness through knowledge of God. Natural law has three levels: eternal law (God’s plan), natural law (accessible to reason), and positive law (human laws). He advocated for a rational state to ensure coexistence and achieve the supernatural end of humanity.