15th-Century Spanish Literature: Transition to the Renaissance
XV Century: The Transition to the Renaissance
1. Historical Context
The fifteenth century in Spain was characterized by frequent clashes between the nobility and the monarchy, the struggle against the Arabs, and tensions with Jews. Royal power weakened, and private ambitions grew. This situation was defused with the arrival of the Catholic Monarchs, who unified the peninsula and concluded the Reconquista.
Three periods mark this era: the court of Juan II, Henry IV (1454-1474), and the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, beginning after the victory of Isabella’s supporters at the Battle of Toro in 1476.
After the crisis of the fourteenth century, there was a progressive economic recovery and a population increase, leading to flourishing cities. The bourgeoisie gained importance and imposed its values.
2. Cultural Context
Despite political and social tensions, the century saw intense cultural life, with the courtly gentleman playing a significant role. Knowledge of weaponry wasn’t enough; cultivation in literature was also essential.
These gentlemen were guardians of noble palaces, patrons of libraries, and promoters of the arts. Courts became centers attracting great literary figures.
French influence diminished, replaced by Italian influence and the resurgence of Greco-Roman culture, marking the beginning of humanism. Humanism brought anthropocentrism and an appreciation for the pleasures of life.
Gutenberg’s invention of printing in this century increased book readership and the spread of culture.
In 1492, Antonio de Nebrija published the first Spanish grammar, during a time when Castilian was influenced by Latin due to the revival of Greco-Roman culture.
Popular Poetry: Ballads
Ballads are epic-lyric compositions with an undefined number of verses, composed to be sung or recited. They feature eight-syllable verses with assonance rhyme in even lines, while odd lines are left unrhymed. Oral transmission led to multiple versions of a single ballad.
Regarding their origin, the traditional theory suggests they originated from the fragmentation of old chansons de geste, with memorized fragments narrating specific episodes.
Other authors (individualistic theory) believe ballads predate chansons de geste and were composed by individual authors.
Romancero is the collection of ballads compiled in the fifteenth century by educated classes who took an interest in them and began preserving them in writing.
Old ballads are those anonymous and orally transmitted. From the sixteenth century onwards, writers created new ballads, known as romances nuevos.
1. Topics
Based on their origin, ballads are classified into the following groups:
1.1. Biblical and Classical:
These ballads draw themes from the Old and New Testaments and Greco-Roman tragedies like the Trojan War and the burning of Rome by Nero.
1.2. Epic:
Their themes align with those of the chansons de geste. Epic ballads are further divided into:
- National Themes: The Arab invasion of the peninsula, the exploits of El Cid, the independence of Castile under Count Fernán González, etc.
- Carolingian Themes: Centered on the Battle of Roncesvalles and the figure of Roland.
- Breton Themes: Focus on isolated incidents from the Arthurian cycle rather than grand deeds.
1.3. Historical and News Ballads:
Related to historical events, these ballads served as news sources, informing people about contemporary events. They depict conflicts between Christians (stories of betrayal, death, abuse of power) and between Christians and Moors (border ballads narrating events from the Reconquista).
1.4. Romantic and Lyrical:
These ballads have little historical basis and primarily focus on storytelling and expressing emotions.
2. Language and Style
Despite their variety, ballads share recurring features that define their style:
- Due to their oral nature, they employ fixed formulas to introduce the narrative, set the scene, present characters, initiate dialogue, indicate action, mark time, etc.
- Repetition is a common stylistic device, including phonetic, lexical, and thematic repetitions.
- Variation in tense usage to accelerate the narrative and avoid monotony.
- Simple vocabulary and use of archaisms like endings in -ades and -ié, the initial f-, non for “no,” vos for “you,” the adverb helo, etc.
Court Poetry
Court poetry was cultivated in palaces and courts. These poems were collected in anthologies like the Cancionero de Baena.
Two main poetic forms were included in these collections:
- Lyric Song (canción): Composed of eight-syllable verses with regular consonant rhyme. Its most frequent theme was courtly love, influenced by the Provençal style, with language filled with adoration and rhetoric.
- Doctrinal Poem (decir): Narrative or allegorical poems with twelve-syllable verses divided into two hemistiches. These poems were influenced by Greco-Roman culture and the Italian poet Dante Alighieri.
Among the fifteenth-century court poets, three figures stand out: the Marquis of Santillana, Juan de Mena, and Jorge Manrique.
1. Marquis of Santillana
Íñigo López de Mendoza (1398-1458), Marquis of Santillana, belonged to a family favored by the Trastámara dynasty. He acted as a patron of the arts and amassed one of the largest libraries of his time.
His work includes serranillas, influenced by Galician-Portuguese pastorelas and the Libro de buen amor by Juan Ruiz, Archpriest of Hita. He also wrote allegorical poems imitating Dante, such as Infierno de los enamorados and Comedieta de Ponza.
Santillana’s attempt to adapt Italian poetic meters to Spanish, particularly the sonnet, is noteworthy. However, this effort only achieved significant success with Garcilaso de la Vega in the sixteenth century.
2. Juan de Mena
Juan de Mena (1411-1456) served as secretary for Latin letters to John II and was an expert in classical literature.
His most notable work is the allegorical poem Laberinto de Fortuna, dedicated to John II. It consists of three hundred stanzas (hence its nickname “El Laberinto”) and aimed to elevate the Castilian language to the level of Latin.
Its structure is based on the three wheels of Fortune—past, present, and future—and Mena used this poem to try and win John II’s favor for Álvaro de Luna.
3. Jorge Manrique
Jorge Manrique (1440-1479) was born in Paredes de Nava (Palencia). He embodied the courtly gentleman, skilled in both arms and letters. He fought to defend his father’s possessions and supported Isabella I of Castile.
His literary output is small but reflects the interests of his time: the courtly environment, political conflicts, and concerns about life and death.
His most famous work is Coplas por la muerte de su padre (Verses on the Death of His Father), dedicated to his father, Don Rodrigo Manrique.
Coplas por la muerte de su padre
The poem consists of forty coplas (stanzas) with a unique rhyme scheme.
It is an elegy lamenting the death of Don Rodrigo Manrique.
3.1. Structure
The poem has a clear structure, divided into three parts:
- Stanzas I-XIV: Jorge Manrique makes general considerations about life and death: life’s transience, the fleeting nature of worldly possessions, the equalizing power of death, etc. Through metaphors and allegories (life as a road or river, death as the sea), he presents a Christian view of death and downplays its arrival. This section reflects the medieval theocentric worldview, where life is seen as preparation for a better life after death.
- Stanzas XV-XXIV: Manrique refers to well-known figures from his time to illustrate that wealth and power offer no advantage against death, which comes to all. He employs the medieval Ubi sunt? (“Where are they?”) motif to emphasize that some individuals are not even remembered after death.
- Stanzas XXV-XL: Manrique focuses on his father, recalling his exemplary life that makes him worthy of eternal life and leaves behind a legacy of fame. Even in death, Don Rodrigo’s strength and serenity as a good Christian are highlighted, contrasting with the typical depictions in the Danse Macabre.
3.2. Topics and Content
Manrique addresses fundamental themes of his time. Reflections on life and death are central to the poem.
His perspective is that of a Christian gentleman who believes earthly life is a preparation for true life in heaven. In addition to earthly and eternal life, he considers a third kind of life: the life of fame, the memory left behind by great individuals.
This reflection on life and death connects to other themes and motifs of his time: fortune, fame, the transience of life, the courtly world, power struggles, the Ubi sunt? motif, etc.
3.3. Language and Style
Manrique’s language and style are consistently simple and devoid of unnecessary embellishments. The clarity of his words allows his message to resonate universally.
He frequently engages the reader through the use of the first-person plural, rhetorical questions, and imperatives.
The images and metaphors he employs are often drawn from tradition but acquire emotional authenticity through his poetic expression. Feeling permeates the poem, constantly inviting reflection.