16th and 17th Century Spain: Empire, Decline, and Culture
Spain in the 17th Century
Habsburg Spain: Government and Conflicts
In 1598, Philip III inherited the Spanish monarchy and delegated power to the Duke of Lerma, who managed it for personal gain. His son, Philip IV, inherited the throne in 1621. His favorite, the Count-Duke of Olivares, was committed to the state and initiated a centralized process. In 1625, the project of the Union of Arms aimed to make the peninsular kingdoms responsible for maintaining the empire. During Philip IV’s reign, Portugal became independent. Philip IV died in 1665, and his mother acted as regent until his son, Charles II, came of age.
The Crisis of 1640
This crisis occurred during Philip IV’s reign. A political crisis joined the existing social unrest. The Count-Duke of Olivares proposed the Union of Arms in Catalonia, which was subsequently paralyzed. The war with France began, and relations between Castile and the Generalitat deteriorated due to the constant presence of royal troops in Catalonia. This led to Catalonia’s detachment from the crown and the Corpus of Blood revolt. Catalonia appointed the French monarch, Louis XIII, as Count of Barcelona. However, in 1652, Barcelona reconsidered and reunited with Castile. Additionally, fiscal and political problems in Portugal led to an uprising against Castile, ultimately achieving independence along with its American colonies.
The Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe
Castile experienced economic and demographic deterioration. Philip III pursued a policy of agreements with political opponents: a treaty with London in 1604, a ceasefire in Holland in 1607, and a twelve-year truce with Holland in 1609. The empire faced a conflict with the German Catholic princes, supported by Spain. In 1643, the troops suffered a final defeat. The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, recognized Holland’s independence. The conflict with France continued until 1659.
Spain in the 16th Century
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts
Charles V, son of Joanna the Mad and Philip the Handsome, inherited numerous counties and Austrian territories. He did not establish a capital in Castile, appointed a foreign ruler, raised taxes, and disregarded the Castilian nobility. The general discontent led to the emergence of the Comuneros, led by the Holy Junta and three generals: Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado, who were defeated in 1521. The GermanÃas in Valencia involved anti-seigneurial conflicts by farmers and artisans trying to gain control of the cities. External conflicts included wars with France and the Turks, and the religious problem in Germany with the rise of Lutheran Protestantism, which concluded with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.
The Reign of Philip II: Iberian Unity
Philip II, son of Charles I and Isabella of Portugal, inherited Castile and its territories after his father’s abdication. He also faced a troubled political situation due to the ongoing defense of Catholicism. He established a fixed court in Madrid, appointed Spanish advisors, and placed the economic burden of the empire on Castile. In 1580, Portugal joined the crown through the Cortes, recognizing Philip II as king with a commitment to uphold Portuguese laws. A Portuguese viceroyalty was established. This resulted in the union of the kingdoms, which remained independent with their own administrations.
Habsburg Political Model: Union of Kingdoms
The Habsburg monarchy was characterized by its multinational nature, respecting the institutions and laws of each territory. It defended the unity and religious orthodoxy of the Habsburg monarchy. The king personally managed power, assisted by secretaries appointed to govern or administer each area. The management relied on advice. The crown’s finances came from taxes on farmers and loans from banking families, leading to accumulated debts and increased interest.
Economy and Society in 16th Century Spain
The economy was marked by American trade. There were two stages: growth and expansion driven by American demand until the second half of the 16th century, followed by an economic downturn and inflation due to the mass production of metals. The nobility maintained its economic and social power, the clergy retained its social influence, and the third estate experienced periods of prosperity and decline.
Culture and the Inquisition
Humanist ideas, including those of Erasmus, spread and were accepted by the nobility and the crown. Erasmus of Rotterdam disseminated Christian ideas of questionable orthodoxy. In 1545, the Church convened the Council of Trent to redefine Catholic doctrine, initiating the Counter-Reformation to combat Protestant ideas. The spread of Erasmianism was blocked, and the Inquisition began persecuting those with any connection to Protestantism.