16th Century Europe: Conflicts, Religion, and Power Shifts

Posted on Mar 4, 2025 in History

France: Religious Strife and Intervention (1557-1559)

  • 1557: Victory at San Quentin.
  • 1559: Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis.
  • Intervention on behalf of Catholics in the religious wars.
  • Huguenots (Calvinists) disputed the crown.

The Ottoman Empire: Victory at Lepanto (1571)

  • 1571: Victory at Lepanto (Spain, Venice, the Vatican, Genoa, Naples, and Malta) against the Ottoman fleet, led by Don Juan de Austria.
  • End of Ottoman dominance in the Western Mediterranean.

Flanders: Revolt Against Spanish Rule

  • Resistance from the nobility and bourgeoisie against the imposition of the Council of Trent.
  • 1566: Revolts and incidents (burning of churches) that escalated into war.
  • William of Orange (later Stadtholder of the United Provinces) and the Duke of Alba.
  • Alliance between William of Orange, German Protestant princes, French Huguenots, and Elizabeth of England.
  • 1578: Governor Alejandro Farnese retained the southern Catholic provinces under the Spanish crown (Union of Arras).
  • 1579: Protestant provinces organized in the north (Union of Utrecht).
  • 1581: Independence of the United Provinces.

England: Naval Conflicts and the Spanish Armada

  • 1568: English privateers harassed Spanish trade between America and Flanders.
  • 1587: Vice Admiral Drake entered the Bay of Cádiz and burned ships preparing to invade England.
  • 1588: The Armada set out from Lisbon under the command of Alonso de Guzmán, seventh Duke of Medina Sidonia.
  • English forces and storms in northern Scotland and Ireland decimated the Armada.

Portugal: Succession Crisis and Spanish Rule

  • 1578: King Sebastian of Portugal died without an heir, leading to a political crisis.
  • 1580: Philip II of Spain assumed the Crown of Portugal with the support of the Portuguese nobility and clergy.
  • Dual monarchy with Portuguese laws and institutions remaining autonomous under Spanish rule.
  • Portugal inherited Spain’s enemies (England and the Netherlands).
  • The Netherlands attacked the Portuguese colonial empire, occupying many possessions.
  • 1640: Revolt in Lisbon led by the Duke of Braganza, who became King John IV.
  • 1668: The Habsburgs renounced their claims to the Portuguese Crown.

Conflict in the Alpujarras (1568-1570)

  • 1568: The Moorish population of the Alpujarras revolted against abusive treatment and suppression of their culture.
  • Cruel war in Almeria, Malaga, and Granada, ended by Don Juan de Austria.
  • Approximately 80,000 Moriscos were killed, captured, or driven to North Africa.

Crisis in the Crown of Aragon (1591)

  • 1591: Antonio Perez, former secretary of Philip II, fled to Zaragoza after imprisonment for the murder of Juan de Escobedo.
  • Perez sought protection under the privileges of the Chief Justice.
  • Philip II used the Inquisition to capture Perez, accusing him of crimes against the Catholic faith.
  • Aragonese reaction: considered it a violation of their laws and released Perez, who fled to France and then England.
  • Perez launched a smear campaign against Philip II.
  • Philip II sent the Royal Army to Aragon to control the situation and assert royal authority.