16th-Century Spain: Economy, Society, Culture, and the Inquisition

Posted on Nov 13, 2024 in History

16th-Century Spain: Economy, Society, and Culture

7.4. Economy, Society, and Culture

Demography

During the 16th century, Spain experienced population growth despite emigration to the Americas. In the late 15th century, Castile had 5 million people, Aragon 800,000, and Navarra 120,000. Most of the population was rural. However, the Hispanic population decreased by the end of the century due to the expulsion of the Jews, the departure of the Moors from Granada, emigration to America, epidemics, and famines.

Population increases resumed throughout the 16th century. Major causes of death included:

  • The Plague: Epidemics in 1507, 1527-1530, 1565-1566, and 1596-1602. These were less severe than in the 17th century, except for the last one (about 600,000 deaths).
  • Famine: Not always a direct cause of death, but a factor weakening the population and making them vulnerable to diseases.
  • Wars: While not excessively deadly given the weaponry of the time, wars were frequent to maintain order.

Economy

Economic growth occurred due to population growth and exports to America. More land was cultivated, converting cereal fields into vineyards and olive groves. Crafts experienced a quantitative boom, and trade was boosted. The Mesta, a powerful organization of sheepherders, maintained its influence, hindering agricultural improvements and causing deforestation. The massive influx of gold and silver from America in the latter half of the century led to price inflation. This, coupled with a lack of product improvement, resulted in more expensive and lower quality goods compared to European counterparts. American money, audited in the House of Seville, quickly flowed into the hands of foreign traders. This period was marked by a lack of investment in productive assets (technical improvements in agriculture and crafts) and increased spending on luxury goods, often from abroad. The Crown also accumulated debts to maintain the Empire and its costly wars.

Culture

The Spanish Renaissance unfolded in three stages:

  1. Opening under the Catholic Monarchs and Cisneros.
  2. Transition under Charles I and the beginning of Philip II’s reign.
  3. Closing with the Counter-Reformation under Philip II.

In 1480, the Catholic Monarchs liberalized book printing and importation, leading to an influx of foreign books. Erasmianism, supported by the monarchy, became the dominant ideology. Openness to European trends under Charles I facilitated the arrival of humanist ideas. Key figures include Juan and Alfonso Valdés, Luis Vives, and Nebrija. Cardinal Cisneros supported Humanism and founded the University of Alcalá. While the number of universities increased, quality did not necessarily improve.

Humanism, an aesthetic, philosophical, and religious movement, affirmed human values:

  1. Return to the classical world with a new vision, focusing on Classical Latin.
  2. Individualism: Primacy of will, culture, and character education; a new religious vision placing man at the center. Reform became the instrument of dissemination.
  3. Nature as a reflection of God. The world and man were explored through the Crusades, explorers like Columbus, and geographers like Aeneas Sylvius. Interest grew in natural sciences and observing man to understand human substance and mental life.
  4. Experimentalism and explanation of phenomena. Renewal in philology, politics, historiography, and research, with new scientific techniques and discoveries of ancient texts. Mathematics and Astronomy saw significant advancements.

Prominent figures in the Iberian Peninsula include legal scholars Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, and Melchior Cano, as well as philosopher and political theorist Francisco Suárez and Father Mariana. The literary Renaissance is represented by Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega, the poems of Fray Luis de León, the mystics St. John of the Cross and St. Teresa of Jesus, and the picaresque novel.

The Inquisition

From 1527, the Inquisition arrested groups accused of heresy (Alumbrados). The Counter-Reformation closed the country to European influences, and humanists became suspect. Philip II implemented measures like the Index of Forbidden Books, annual library purges, and restrictions on foreign students. Architecture evolved from Plateresque to classical forms inspired by the Italian Renaissance. Under Philip II, the Herrera style emerged. Sculpture featured monumental bronze and marble in the Italian classical style and polychrome wood imagery. Notable painters include Luis de Morales and El Greco.

The Catholic Monarchs’ choice to suppress religious minorities led to the creation of the Spanish Inquisition to test the sincerity of Jewish and Moorish conversions. While religious in essence, the Pope granted authority to the monarchs, who appointed inquisitors with broad political power. The Inquisition became a bureaucratic machine against heresy, targeting Jewish converts and repressing heterodoxy (Alumbrados, Erasmianism, Lutheranism, witchcraft), along with matters of faith and morals (sexual deviations, bigamy). It became a political tool for the monarchy, the only body with authority over all kingdoms, serving as an information and repression system. Ruled by the Supreme Council of the General Inquisition, led by the Inquisitor General, it had hundreds of officials and local courts. Sentences ranged from fines and public shaming to whipping, imprisonment, and death. The Inquisition delivered prisoners to civil justice for punishment. Philip II used it against Antonio Pérez, accusing him of heresy. Famous actions include the 1527 arrest of the Alumbrados and trials against Protestants in Seville and Valladolid (1558 and 1559). These actions aimed to suppress dissent against the Crown, which championed Catholicism and unity, especially during European conflicts against Protestants. The Inquisition harmed culture by suppressing dissenting opinions and creating fear of heresy accusations. Its Index of Forbidden Books restricted access to European science and thought. The Inquisition was abolished by the Liberals in 1813, restored by Ferdinand VII, and finally eliminated in 1834.

Marxist Socialism

Marxist socialism centers on the doctrines of Karl Marx. Political struggle is viewed as a class struggle between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). The bourgeoisie’s appropriation of surplus value—the difference between the value of goods produced and their sale price—is the basis of profit. This leads to increased worker exploitation and wealth concentration. The proletariat develops class consciousness, recognizing its interests as opposed to the capitalist class, resulting in class struggle as the driving force behind societal transformation. Capitalist property, a legal and political construct, must be destroyed through the proletariat gaining political power. This can be achieved through revolution or by exploiting the numerical superiority of workers. Once in power, a temporary “dictatorship of the proletariat” would transform society into a classless socialist society. In this society, the state would remain an administrative tool, eventually withering away. Marxist socialists participate in political and union activities to achieve improvements for workers.