16th Century Spain: Habsburg Political Model & Kingdom Union
16th Century Spain: The Habsburg Political Model
The Habsburg Austrians continued and developed the political legacy of the Catholic Kings, creating a more professionalized administration. Inherited institutions became a more complex bureaucracy. They sought to surround themselves with lawyers and civil law experts from modest backgrounds. Thus, the aristocracy was distanced from the power of the Court, which finally settled in Madrid in a stable manner from Felipe II (1561), allowing political power to be centralized in the hands of the monarchs. The aristocracy continued to play an important role, wielding senior positions in the army, navy, and diplomacy, but always subordinate to the crown.
Key Features of Habsburg Administration
The key features of their administration included the use of the Councils and the Secretary as critical organs. Courts were relegated, spacing their consultations, and a remarkable Hacendística machine was developed. The army multiplied due to the imperial government’s needs. Therefore, the system was based on the Councils’ polisinodial system of consultative status, formed mostly by officials and lawyers, but also by members of the nobility and clergy. The system revolved around the Council of State, which had jurisdiction over all kingdoms and advised the King on relevant issues of politics, especially abroad.
The rest of the boards were divided into two groups: sector councils and regional councils. The former were responsible for a particular area of government (Treasury, Orders, War, Inquisition, State, Granada), and the latter dealt with the administration of different kingdoms (Italy, Flanders, Aragon, Portugal, India). A key figure was the Secretaries (de los Cobos, Vazquez, Antonio Perez), people trusted by the king and who dispatched daily on government affairs. At first, they were the links between councils, who moved the issues that the king wanted to raise, and then informed the monarch of the deliberations of those.
One institution that appeared under Felipe II and then generalized in the next century was the Boards, responsible for specific issues and affecting several boards. They were formed by the nobility and scholars. Territorial administration was headed by the viceroys or governors, charged with governance of a territory (Aragon, Flanders…). These positions were occupied by the royal family or members of the nobility, often linked to the territory in exercising its function. Below them, there remained the chanceries, mayors, councilmen, accountants…
The Hacienda and Financial Challenges
The Hacienda was a body that had remarkable growth. Regular taxes (sales tax, service and tribute, thirds,…) and extraordinary taxes (cross, services…) were joined at this stage by the vast amounts of precious metals from America, which were added to the real estate. Yet, the imperial policy expenditure exceeded income, and upon his abdication, Carlos V had committed the collection of several years, and his son Philip II had to resort to bankruptcies and suspensions of payments (1557, 1560, 1575, 1596).
To cope with such financial needs, kings resorted to loans, especially from Genoese, Flemish, and German bankers, and even special issues such as the sale of offices. Felipe II, even in 1590, instituted an excise tax levied on millions called essential foods (wine, vinegar, oil, and meat). The need for foreign policy meant that the army and navies were developed, first for the domain and defense of territories and the other to deal with the continuing conflict in which the Habsburgs were involved. In this period, the famous tercios were born. The fleets had to grow considerably to defend the monopoly and trade with Asian and American territories, especially.