17th Century Europe: Crises and Transformations
Economic and Social Upheaval
By the middle of the 16th century, Europe began a series of crises that would last throughout the 17th century. These corresponded socially with the development of the bourgeoisie and ideologically with the need to experience a new worldview based on the concept of Reason. There were three main difficulties:
A) Economic and social crisis: The development of capitalism in this century was especially favored as a result of the growth of maritime trade, colonialism, and the influx of precious metals from European and American mines, which led to higher prices. Industrial capitalism emerged in England in the first half of the 17th century (Industrial Revolution). There was significant development of technical, maritime, industrial, and agricultural products. The profile of the capitalist entrepreneur emerged as energetic, intelligent, and often unscrupulous, calling for individual freedom against corporations, municipalities, and dominions. This period also saw the exaltation of reason over the authority of textbooks and teachers, promoting scientific development.
Political Instability and Conflict
B) Political crises: This was a period of great instability, and the crisis manifested itself in wars and revolutions. It was the time of colonial expansionism, and European states struggled for dominance in the seas. In Europe, the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) raged for political and religious reasons. This is the period in which modern states were formed, independent and sovereign, often facing each other in their colonial zeal.
A Shift in Thinking
C) Crisis of mentalities: There was a spiritual crisis that manifested itself in the development of the scientific spirit, which had been growing since the Renaissance. Belief in magic and superstition waned, and the mind developed through the influence of Cartesian rationalism and scientific advancements. This was primarily seen in the field of astronomy with the discoveries of Kepler and Galileo, and in medicine with figures like Harvey, who discovered the circulation of blood and the movement of the heart. In the field of mathematics, figures such as Gassendi, Descartes, and Leibniz emerged, and in physics, figures such as Newton. These discoveries led to a change in worldview and deepened the confrontation between the partisans of Aristotle’s theories and the supporters of Copernicus. The crisis brought a loss of reference and skepticism, with figures such as Michel de Montaigne. Therefore, the Cartesian strategy sought to overcome skepticism by turning skeptical doubt into a methodical one.
The Rise of New Philosophies
Many contemporary authors dared not publish their ideas for fear of condemnation. The philosophical currents known as rationalism and empiricism emerged in the political, economic, social, and ideological spheres. They represented a rethinking of the traditional problems of philosophy from the assumptions of modern culture in connection with the scientific revolution. Therefore, it was important to address the problems of knowledge and the scientific method. On the other hand, these philosophies were linked to the development of bourgeois society and the conflicts of the century, which explains the interest devoted to political theory, especially by English writers.