17th-Century Habsburg Rule & the Crisis of 1640
The 17th-Century Habsburgs: Government and Internal Conflicts
Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II were the Habsburg monarchs who reigned in Spain during the 17th century. Known as the Minor Habsburgs, they shared a common governing style through válidos (favorites). These prime ministers, wielding full powers due to the kings’ neglect, incompetence, or disinterest, ruled in their name. The kings entrusted them with such authority that the válidos made all decisions, both in foreign and domestic policy. This system benefited the kings by deflecting criticism onto the válidos for any wrong decisions.
Key figures among the válidos included the Duke of Lerma and Uceda (during Philip III’s reign), the Count-Duke of Olivares and Luis de Haro (under Philip IV), Nithard and Valenzuela (during the regency of Mariana of Austria), and Don Juan José de Austria (under Charles II). This system led to increased corruption as the válidos exploited their power for personal gain.
Throughout the 17th century, multiple internal political conflicts erupted within the Hispanic monarchy. These conflicts stemmed from differing views on the state model: a centralized monarchy versus a decentralized system preserving the laws and institutions of each territory.
In 1609, under the Duke of Lerma, Spain expelled the Moriscos (Muslims baptized after the Reconquista). Three hundred thousand Moriscos were expelled, causing a significant decline in population and workforce, particularly impacting the Valencian nobility. Castile and Catalonia experienced lesser effects.
Tensions peaked during Philip IV’s reign. The Count-Duke of Olivares’s idea of a Unión de Armas, requiring all kingdoms of the Peninsula to contribute to the monarchy’s defense, triggered the Crisis of 1640. This crisis was particularly intense in Catalonia and Portugal. The war in Catalonia ended with the territory remaining under Philip IV’s sovereignty, while Portugal ultimately gained independence.
During Mariana of Austria’s regency, and especially during Charles II’s reign, the aristocracy gained influence, often controlling the monarchy.
The Crisis of 1640
The Thirty Years’ War, beginning in 1618, exacerbated existing economic, social, and demographic crises in Spain. In response to Spain’s weakened state, the Count-Duke of Olivares proposed the Unión de Armas. This was met with resistance, particularly from Aragon, which sent Castilian armies allied with France (then allied with the Protestants) through Catalonia. This sparked a revolt, suppressed in the Corpus de Sang, which in turn led to Catalonia’s secession and alliance with France. Catalonia later returned to Spanish rule.
Portugal also declared independence from the Spanish monarchy, not solely due to the Unión de Armas, but also because of long-standing grievances, such as attacks on Portuguese ships by English pirates.
The Habsburg Political Model: The Union of Kingdoms
The Habsburgs continued and expanded upon the political legacy of the Catholic Monarchs. They favored legal experts over nobility, centralizing political power in the monarchs’ hands and reducing the aristocracy’s influence at court, though the aristocracy retained important military and diplomatic roles.
Castile became the center of the empire, especially under Philip II. Viceroys were established in other kingdoms and possessions (Aragon, the Indies, Italy), and Governors in the Netherlands and Milan. The king was advised by Councils (a polysynodic system), which could be sectoral (Finance, Inquisition) or territorial (Castile, Aragon, the Indies, Italy). These councils were advisory; the king held ultimate authority.
Charles V and Philip II handled daily affairs through trusted advisors called Secretaries, who acted as intermediaries between the king and the councils. Some, like Antonio Pérez under Philip II, gained significant influence. The Crown appointed corregidores to govern cities. Chancillerías and audiencias administered justice.
In 1561, Philip II established Madrid as the capital, leading to its rapid growth and the decline of other court cities like Valladolid and Toledo.