17th Century Habsburg Spain: Government, Conflicts, and Decline
The 17th Century Habsburgs: Government and Internal Conflicts
The Last Habsburg Monarchs
The 17th century saw the reigns of the last three Habsburg monarchs: Philip III (1598-1621), Philip IV (1621-1665), and Charles II (1665-1700). The monarchy exercised absolute political power, concentrating authority in the hands of the sovereign and marginalizing medieval institutions like the Cortes (parliament) or municipalities.
The Role of the Validos
The kings, however, delegated their governing power to validos, private individuals who exercised authority on their behalf. The Duke of Lerma served during Philip III’s reign, the Count-Duke of Olivares during Philip IV’s, and the Jesuit Fernando Nithard Valenzuela during the regency of Charles II. These figures, common in European courts, often hailed from the ranks of the nobility or clergy and could incite factionalism and resentment among other powerful groups. Their position depended entirely on the monarch’s favor, and fluctuations in this relationship could lead to their downfall.
Internal Crisis and Decline
The 17th century marked the beginning of the decline of the Spanish monarchy. Spain lost the European hegemony it had held in the previous century and experienced a deep internal political crisis. This crisis was driven by the demands of foreign policy, which required a large number of men and resources, especially from Castile. The tension reached its peak during the reign of Philip IV (1621-1665).
The Unión de Armas and Revolts
In 1626, the Count-Duke of Olivares proposed the Unión de Armas, a plan requiring each territory of the empire to contribute soldiers proportional to its population. This decision sparked political unrest and revolts in several peripheral regions, who defended their autonomy and opposed the measure. In 1640, Catalonia revolted, leading to a war that lasted until 1652. The same year, Portugal also rebelled, ultimately achieving independence in 1668 (Treaty of Lisbon, ending the Iberian Union).
Other Uprisings
Other uprisings were led by ambitious nobles or fueled by famine, economic hardship, tax pressure, and forced levies. In 1641, the Duke of Medina Sidonia conspired against the monarchy, but the lack of an independence tradition in Andalusia prevented the rebellion from succeeding. In 1647, significant revolts occurred in Palermo and Naples, driven by desperation and hunger, but they failed due to a lack of ideological content and support from the nobility and clergy. Similar events unfolded in Andalusia between 1647 and 1652.
The Crisis of 1640
The year 1640 witnessed a culmination of political and economic tensions. The Count-Duke of Olivares’s demands for resources from the different regions of the empire, equivalent to those extracted from Castile, led to revolts that questioned the very existence of the monarchy.
The Catalan Revolt
Catalonia had endured strained relations with the monarchy since its Cortes rejected the Unión de Armas. Tensions escalated with the excesses of Castilian troops stationed in Catalan territory to fight the French (Catalonia supported the French cause). On Corpus Christi Day, Catalan rebels seized control of Barcelona and killed the viceroy. The government’s repression led the Count-Duke of Olivares to hand over the Generalitat (Catalan government) to the French. The prolonged war and abuses by the French army contributed to the surrender of Barcelona to the Count-Duke in 1652. The Count-Duke, however, largely respected the privileges of the Principality.
The Portuguese Revolt
The union with the Spanish monarchy had never been popular among the Portuguese. Additionally, they suffered Dutch attacks on their colonies in Brazil and Asia. In 1640, an aristocratic conspiracy proclaimed the Duke of Braganza as King John IV. He signed a peace treaty with the Dutch and received support from England and France. In 1668, after a long war, Spain recognized Portugal’s independence in the Treaty of Lisbon.
The Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe
Habsburg foreign policy was characterized by the defense of Catholicism and support for the Habsburg dynasty in Europe. In the early years of Philip IV’s reign, Spain pursued a policy of appeasement. Peace was achieved with England (securing commercial interests in America), an agreement was reached with France (rival for continental hegemony), and the Twelve Years’ Truce (1609-1621) was signed with the Netherlands (granting them de facto independence).
The Thirty Years’ War and Renewed Conflicts
However, these were not lasting peace treaties. European powers used these years of calm to prepare for the inevitable resumption of conflict, which occurred in 1618. Spain decided to intervene in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) alongside Austria. Soon, hostilities with the Netherlands, England, and France resumed. The foreign policy of the Count-Duke of Olivares, aimed at maintaining the prestige of the Spanish monarchy, called for retaining control of the Netherlands and supporting Austria (Catholic and ruled by the Habsburgs). This meant war.
The Cost of War and the Peace of Westphalia
The war effort proved too much for the Spanish monarchy. The defeat at Rocroi (1643) shattered the invincible reputation of Spanish troops, forcing Spain to sign the Peace of Westphalia (1648). This treaty recognized the independence of the Netherlands, while Spain retained Flanders (the southern provinces of the Netherlands).
The Peace of the Pyrenees and French Hegemony
The war with France continued for several years until the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which acknowledged the decline of the Spanish monarchy and the rise of French hegemony in Europe.
Economic and Social Developments
Although the 17th century is associated with a crisis for the Spanish monarchy, it was not uniform in nature. The early years saw a continuation of the prosperity of the previous century, followed by a deep crisis in the mid-century, and a slight recovery in the final decades. This recovery benefited the periphery at the expense of the center.
Demographic and Economic Problems
The main problems were demographic and economic. Spain had never been densely populated, but the 17th century saw a sharp decline, particularly affecting the central plateau. The causes were numerous: plague epidemics, crop failures, famine, expulsion of the Moriscos (1609-1611), emigration to America, wars, and a declining birth rate due to the high number of clergymen and soldiers.
Economic Decline and its Causes
The country experienced severe impoverishment throughout the century. The root cause lay in the high costs of foreign policy at a time when revenues were declining. Agricultural production decreased (crop failures, labor shortages, unequal land distribution, and pressure from the nobility forcing migration). Internal trade (general impoverishment and monetary instability) and colonial trade (piracy and wars) faced serious difficulties, while contributions of American silver diminished.
Financial Measures and Social Stratification
To cover expenses, the monarchy resorted to selling royal lands, public offices, titles, and issuing juros (government bonds) and taxes, which became overwhelming during the reign of Philip IV. These measures were implemented in a rigidly stratified society, with a growing number of privileged individuals (nobles and clergy). The bourgeoisie, instead of investing in productive activities, spent their wealth on luxury goods and titles. This large unproductive population was compounded by the existence of impoverished peasants who migrated to cities and joined the ranks of rogues and beggars. The result was widespread poverty.
Cultural Splendor: The Golden Age
In contrast to Spain’s declining role in Europe, the country experienced a period of cultural splendor known as the Golden Age, associated with the Baroque style and the emphasis on spiritual values in line with the principles of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Its defining characteristics include national celebration, popular appeal, and the defense of traditions.
Art and Literature
Alongside remarkable artistic achievements, with painting reaching one of the peaks of world art (Velázquez, Ribera, Murillo, Zurbarán), the contributions of thinkers and writers stand out. Thinkers engaged in political criticism of the Spanish monarchy (Saavedra Fajardo and Baltasar Gracián), while economists (Tomás Mercado and Sancho de Moncada) debated solutions to the economic decline. Writers like Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca, Quevedo, and Góngora, through their works, expressed the contradictions of 17th-century Spanish society, with its culture based on appearances, ostentation, and distractions that served to mask a society mired in poverty and defeat.