17th Century Spain: Crisis, Decline, and Golden Age
The 17th Century in Spain: Crisis and Transformation
The Crisis of the Habsburg Empire
The 17th century in Europe was a period of widespread crisis, marked by economic depression, epidemics, religious conflicts, and challenges to absolutist states. Spain, under the rule of the Habsburg monarchs Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II, experienced this crisis acutely. Two key features defined this era:
- The decline of Spain’s European hegemony due to the ongoing crisis.
- The remarkable cultural and artistic flourishing of the Golden Age.
By the mid-17th century, the flow of gold and silver from the Americas dwindled, contributing to Spain’s defeats in European wars.
The Habsburgs in the 17th Century
Recognizing their weakening grip on European power, the Habsburgs found themselves embroiled in constant warfare. The Habsburg rulers of this period increasingly relied on validos, powerful royal favorites who exercised significant authority. These validos often made decisions independently, bypassing the traditional advisory councils.
Philip III (1598-1621)
Philip III inherited a vast empire and a formidable army, but also a massive debt and ongoing wars with England and Flanders. Faced with the economic crisis, he pursued a policy of peace, signing treaties with England and a Twelve Years’ Truce with the Dutch. However, Spain was eventually drawn into the Thirty Years’ War.
Philip IV (1621-1665)
Philip IV’s reign saw continued warfare in Europe. Emerging powers like France and England challenged Spain’s dominance. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) marked a turning point, signifying the decline of Habsburg power, the rise of French hegemony, and the acceptance of religious pluralism.
Charles II (1665-1700)
Charles II, plagued by physical and mental frailties, faced internal challenges and the constant threat of French aggression under Louis XIV. The issue of Charles II’s succession became a major European concern, as he had no children. His eventual naming of Philip of Anjou as his heir triggered the War of the Spanish Succession, fueled by fears of a union between the French and Spanish crowns.
The Decline of Spanish Power in Europe
The 17th century, often called Spain’s “Iron Century,” began with the devastating Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). Spain’s involvement stemmed from its ties with the Austrian Habsburgs. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 marked the end of Habsburg hegemony in Europe and Spain’s decline as a major power.
Philip III’s reign initially saw a period of peace, with truces signed with France, England, and the Dutch rebels in Flanders. However, the Thirty Years’ War brought initial Habsburg victories followed by a string of defeats. France and England seized the opportunity to attack Spanish possessions in the Americas.
The war with France continued until 1659, concluding with the Peace of the Pyrenees. Charles II was unable to halt Louis XIV’s expansionist ambitions. His death without an heir led to the War of the Spanish Succession, culminating in the Peace of Utrecht (1713), which signaled the end of the Spanish Empire in Europe.
Valido Rule and Internal Conflicts
The rise of the validos was a significant development in 17th-century Spanish governance. These royal favorites, often drawn from the high nobility, wielded considerable power, making key decisions and effectively sidelining traditional institutions like the Councils.
The reliance on validos arose from the increasing complexity of governing and the Habsburg monarchs’ perceived inability to handle the workload. Notable validos included the Duke of Lerma and the Duke of Uceda under Philip III, the Count-Duke of Olivares and Luis de Haro under Philip IV, and Father Nithard, Fernando Valenzuela, the Duke of Medinaceli, and the Count of Oropesa under Charles II.
Another notable phenomenon was the sale of public offices to raise revenue. In 1640, a general crisis erupted, triggered by the Duke of Olivares’ foreign policy and the financial strain of supporting the Habsburgs. This crisis led to a decline in Habsburg authority within Spain and the fall of Olivares in 1643.
Economic, Social, and Cultural Trends in the 17th Century
The 17th century was a period of economic hardship across Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean and the Iberian Peninsula. The Spanish Crown experienced a prolonged and severe economic downturn, affecting most regions except for some peripheral areas that witnessed growth. The introduction and spread of corn cultivation was a significant agricultural development in northern Spain. In Catalonia and Valencia, mid-sized farms consolidated their position.
Trade suffered a decline due to French competition in the Mediterranean and English and Dutch rivalry in the Atlantic. This was exacerbated by growing self-sufficiency in the Americas and the depletion of American silver mines. The commercial crisis led to a decrease in currency circulation.
Demographic trends varied across Spain. The Cantabrian region saw a population increase of over 50%, while inland Spain experienced a decline of around 12%. Moderate growth occurred in Mediterranean coastal areas.
In society, the power of the aristocracy and the Church grew, leading to an expansion of privileged groups. The number of poor and beggars increased, and social unrest, including banditry, became widespread.
Despite the economic and political challenges, Spain experienced an unprecedented cultural blossoming known as the Golden Age. This era witnessed the literary genius of Cervantes and his masterpiece, Don Quixote. Other luminaries of the Golden Age included Quevedo, Lope de Vega, and Góngora, whose works continue to be celebrated today.