1848: A Year of Revolutionary Change in Europe
The Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848 were the last of the three great revolutionary waves of the nineteenth century, following those of 1820 and 1830. While sharing inspiration from the principles of the French Revolution with the latter, their expansion and influence were greater, they were more radical, and they enjoyed significant popular support. They marked the opening of a new era. It was a widespread movement, occurring almost simultaneously in France, most of Italy, Switzerland, the German states, the Austrian Empire, and Prussia. Its echoes reached Spain, Britain, and Latin America. However, while the revolution’s expansion was rapid, its failure was equally swift.
These revolutions were distinguished by their democratic and social character. Unlike previous revolutions, nationalist movements played a very important role.
Democratic Revolution and High Social Content
In the years leading up to the revolutions, between 1846 and 1847, Europe experienced an agrarian and industrial crisis, causing hunger and discontent among workers. In 1848, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Budapest, Milan, and Rome were filled with barricades populated by urban workers. They demanded more rights and freedoms reminiscent of the radical French Revolution: universal male suffrage, a democratic and social republic, assistance to the poor and unemployed, and the right to work and free association.
The Revolutions of 1848 failed to mobilize the rural population. Moderate liberals, fearful of a popular uprising more threatening than traditional monarchies, abandoned the revolution, turned against the revolutionaries, contributed to its repression, and made agreements with the more conservative elements.
Nationalist Character
Nationalism was very important in the Revolutions of 1848; the best example of this were the events in the Austrian Empire.
However, from the summer of 1848, the Austrian government began to undo most of the political and constitutional concessions it had made in its territories. The imperial army cracked down in Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Milan, and Venice, carrying out bloody reprisals against workers, students, politicians, and military and nationalist radicals. The Frankfurt Parliament was dissolved. In Hungary, the Austrians found the necessary strength and support in the Russian army. In Italy, Austrian troops had to face the King of Piedmont. Rome was liberated by the army of the French Republic.
Consequences of the Revolutions of 1848
Despite their failure, the Revolutions of 1848 had the following consequences:
- They ended the international system that had emerged in 1815, which was succeeded by conflicts between European powers.
- In areas such as Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bohemia, unsatisfied nationalism emerged, still a minority but with huge potential.
- After 1848, moderate liberals achieved significant economic concessions and participated in many European governments, in exchange for not claiming political freedoms.
- During the 1850s and 1860s, “reforms from above” occurred, that is, without revolutionary pressure.
- The bourgeoisie negotiated with governments and became conservative.
- Urban workers, aware of their defeat, lack of preparation, and minority status, began to organize politically in an autonomous manner, conscious of their circumstances.