18th & 19th Century Revolutions & Transformations
18th & 19th Century Revolutions & Transformations
The Enlightenment
Illustration: The intellectual movement of the 18th century, drawing from Locke and Newton, challenged absolutism and proposed the division of powers and scientific methods. It defended observation, reason, and human knowledge as tools for education and progress.
Philosophers:
- Montesquieu: Defended the separation of powers.
- Rousseau: Defined the social contract and established the principle of national sovereignty through voting.
- Voltaire: Defended the need for a parliament to limit royal power.
Enlightened Despotism
Characterized by the principle of “everything for the people, without the people.” This involved the reorganization of state administration, education reform, modernization of agriculture, development of manufacturing, and partial liberalization of production.
Causes of the French Revolution
- Economic Crisis: Bad harvests in the 1760s led to food shortages, impacting the Third Estate.
- Social Crisis: The bourgeoisie, dissatisfied with political marginalization, could only hold financial positions while the privileged classes held power.
- Financial Crisis: Debt from previous wars, the luxury of the court, and the cost of aiding the American Revolution led to state bankruptcy, prompting calls for tax reform.
Downfall of the Old Regime
On July 14, 1789, the storming of the Bastille, a political prison, symbolized the fall of absolutism and sparked the French Revolution. The revolt spread, with homes destroyed and antiseigneurial documents burned. A National Assembly was formed, abolishing feudal decrees and promulgating the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Phases of the French Revolution
- Constitutional Monarchy: The conservative bourgeoisie reached an agreement with the king to abolish the old regime and impose liberalism.
- Democratic Republic: Driven by radical elements.
- Bourgeois Republic: Power returned to the conservative bourgeoisie.
Napoleon
In 1799, Napoleon was appointed consul to prevent the return of absolutism, gaining support from more radical sectors. He signed a concordat with the Church, establishing religious peace, and promulgated the Civil Code in 1804, codifying previous laws. He later declared himself emperor.
Napoleon’s Downfall
Napoleon’s conquests, while initially favored, eventually acted against Spanish interests. The invasion of Spain by a foreign king and the decline of Napoleon’s empire, culminating in the disastrous Russian campaign, led to his abdication in 1814.
Agricultural Revolution
Rising agricultural prices were achieved through land privatization, allowing new owners to implement reforms and new methods. The introduction of new crops led to a richer diet.
The United States
On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence declared the United States’ principles of freedom, the pursuit of happiness, and the duty of respecting the rights of the people.
U.S. Constitution
In 1787, the first constitution established the separation of powers and a federal republic. The Bill of Rights guaranteed freedoms of religion, expression, the press, and the right to a jury trial.
Bourbon Absolutism
The first Bourbons in Spain introduced centralized absolutism, concentrating all power in the monarch. Courts were annulled, secretaries replaced councils, and the king’s authority became absolute.
Constitutional Monarchy (1791)
The 1791 constitution established the separation of powers, national sovereignty, and the king’s right to veto. Popular sovereignty was based on universal suffrage and equality.
Congress of Vienna
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna restored absolutist monarchs to their thrones and redrew the map of Europe. The Holy Alliance was a treaty of mutual aid between monarchs, allowing for military intervention.
Liberalism
A political philosophy founded on individual rights, guaranteeing freedoms and decisions. It advocates for assemblies, voting, lawmaking, a constitution, and the separation of powers.
Nationalism
An ideology upholding the right of peoples to self-determination and sovereignty. It spread in opposition to the Holy Alliance and absolutist empires.
Railroads
The 18th century saw the adaptation of the steam engine for land transport. Initially used in mines, Stephenson’s steam-powered locomotive and the construction of railroads revolutionized transportation. The development of the steel industry further enhanced the advantages of railroads, shortening travel times, increasing safety, and lowering the cost of transporting goods.
Banking and Finance
Banks acted as intermediaries, supplying capital to firms and investors. Large corporations required significant investments, leading to the emergence of stock exchanges.
Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie owned industries and businesses. There were three main groups: bankers (the upper bourgeoisie), professionals (the middle class or liberal bourgeoisie), and small business owners (the petite bourgeoisie). They became employers, central to social life, and the prevailing role model.
Workers
Industrial workers, or the proletariat, were the largest and most disadvantaged group, working long hours for low wages in factories. Working conditions were harsh, with 12-14 hour workdays and lower wages for women and children.
Labor Associations
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