18th and 19th Century Literature: Enlightenment and Romanticism
1. The Enlightenment
General Introduction
The Enlightenment
The 18th century, often called the Age of Enlightenment or Age of Reason, was significantly influenced by British empiricism—the view that experience could give rise to theoretical values. David Hume, a representative of philosophical rationalism founded on empirical grounds, awakened a current of admiration in France, initiated by Voltaire.
The Enlightenment is characterized by a blend of intellectualism and empiricism. It gave rise to the myth of progress: contributing to human progress became a task for all, especially the learned and wise. The ideal state of happiness and perfection could only be reached once the darkness of ignorance was dispelled by the light of reason and science.
A school of rationalist optimism captivated enlightened minds across Europe. These thinkers believed that all things in nature were arranged according to rational and harmonious laws, creating a balanced universe.
Enlightenment literature often showcased the beauty and wonder of nature, revealing a universal harmony that should also govern human affairs and institutions.
In theology, rationalistic optimism led to a finalist conception, where the universe’s arrangement pointed to a universal purpose. Theists attributed this cosmic order to a superior intelligence, while deists saw it as a result of nature itself, animated by an intrinsic force. Both perspectives promoted the use of reason and honesty in public and private life.
However, figures like Voltaire reacted against the optimism’s potential for inaction against real-life problems. Rousseau viewed nature as the source of all good, not an abstract order.
The Enlightenment in Spain
In Spain, the Enlightenment manifested as philanthropy—an altruistic, aristocratic sentiment promoting the interests of the privileged classes for the economic and intellectual advancement of the people. This is reflected in enlightened despotism, a system of government where care for the people excluded their participation in power (“everything for the people, but without the people”).
The enlightened spirit also made cultural pursuits a mark of distinction, leading to an intellectual aristocracy.
The 18th century in Spain saw attempts to spread culture through secularized education, the establishment of primary and professional schools, and university reform through state intervention.
Spanish thinkers and writers of this era examined their inheritance with new criteria: rationality and utility. The relationship between the Enlightenment and the Church and other institutions often required a critical approach, leading to moderated expression and occasional contradictions.
Historians have divided the century into three stages:
- The first, under Philip V, is marked by Padre Feijoo, who initiated the Enlightenment in Spain.
- The second, culminating in the reign of Carlos III, saw reforms in all areas of Spanish life, albeit with partial success.
- The third, under Charles IV, represents the Enlightenment’s decline. The French Revolution aroused suspicion against new ideas, especially from France. This phase ended in 1808 with the abdications of Charles IV and Fernando VII.
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism, an anti-baroque reaction, emerged in 18th-century Europe. Its doctrine adhered to the units and precepts of Aristotelian poetics, revived by Italian critics and practiced by French authors. A return to classical forms often resulted in imitation rather than genuine innovation.
This “fad” was adopted even by countries with little connection to Greco-Roman culture, giving it an exotic character. This allowed Neoclassicism to coexist with the emerging Romantic spirit of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Some even see neoclassicism as revealing a romantic sensibility.
Enlightenment figures viewed antiquity through Plutarch’s lens—a “moralized” past with exemplary heroes. David’s painting of The Death of Marat exemplifies this, portraying Marat as a Plutarchian hero killed in the line of duty.
Neoclassical artists sought harmony, while poets and sculptors expressed a nostalgic longing for a lost ideal world.
Spanish Prose of the 18th Century
Introduction
The War of the Spanish Succession, beginning the 18th century, divided Spain. A sense of decadence prevailed, alongside a zeal for reform (e.g., the Societies of Friends of the Country). Thinkers like Jovellanos addressed social and political problems, criticizing the aristocracy and Church for holding vast, unproductive lands. Jovellanos’ Report on Agrarian Law advocated land redistribution and broader property rights.
Progressive thinkers faced scrutiny from the Inquisition. Censorship forced revisions and self-censorship, suppressing many Enlightenment publications in Spain, though ideas still circulated.
Writers like Luzán, Juan de Iriarte, Cadalso, and Leandro Fernández de Moratín had direct contact with European literature and ideas. Others, like Jovellanos and Meléndez Valdés, corresponded with foreign authors. Their works spread interest in foreign literature and ideas.
Typical literary forms included the essay, the letter, and the fictional dream (e.g., Torres Villarroel). Periodicals fostered controversy and debate, also disseminating literary works. Cadalso’s Noches Lúgubres and Cartas Marruecas were published in newspapers before appearing as books, as were satirical works by Jovellanos and poems by Meléndez Valdés.
Prose became synonymous with eloquence, with “works of eloquence” referring to prose works.
Scholarly, Didactic, and Non-Fiction Prose
The 18th century prioritized critical and didactic prose over artistic genres like poetry and fiction. The essay, emphasizing ideology over artistry, is not always considered literature by modern standards, yet it was crucial for understanding 18th-century thought.
Latin was abandoned in favor of Spanish for scientific, philosophical, and religious expression. Clarity, precision, and explanation governed linguistic expression, alongside criticism and satire. Literature was measured by its “utility,” favoring the essay over other forms.
Historiography, philosophy, and science were modernized, leading to a pursuit of rigor in vocabulary and clear sentencing. New prose forms emerged (traditionalist texts, teaching materials, etc.), alongside newspapers and letters (e.g., Cadalso’s Cartas Marruecas). This educational effort blurred the lines between fiction and ideological discourse.
The encyclopedic urge to categorize knowledge flourished. In Spain, Feijoo combined the essay and personal reflection in his Teatro Crítico Universal and Cartas Eruditas y Curiosas.
Authors were not specialized in single disciplines. Historians engaged in philosophy and literature, poets wrote political essays, and so on. Luzán stands out as a “specialist,” focusing on literature and renewing it with his Poética, which established neoclassical rules in Spain.
Narrative Prose
Gracián and Quevedo initially influenced 18th-century Spanish prose, but a shift towards clarity and simplicity gradually occurred.
The 18th century was generally poor in narrative, with the novel neglected. Existing works felt outdated, and many authors resorted to imitating old styles. Torres Villarroel, though a skilled writer, didn’t innovate the genre. His satire, however, offers insights into the era. While considered a continuation of the picaresque, his work lacks its key features.
18th-century prose balanced tradition and innovation. Cadalso’s Noches Lúgubres represents genuine renewal, reflecting an early Romantic exaltation of passionate love. It combines passionate love with the Enlightenment’s rationality and didacticism. Cadalso’s Tediato exhibits Romantic hero traits: a death wish, rejection of the world, unrequited passion, and despair, set in Romantic scenarios (night, cemeteries, cypresses, the moon).
The Poetry of the Enlightenment
Introduction
18th-century Spanish poets often belonged to the intellectual and political elite: judges, politicians, diplomats, members of economic societies, and academics.
Poetry initially followed the Baroque sensibility, with Quevedo and Góngora as models. However, Luzán’s 1737 Poética advocated for clearer, more orderly, and useful literature. He prioritized understanding and “sweetness” over “beauty,” rejecting Baroque obscurity and advocating for sparing use of figurative language.
Around 1750, a new, anti-Baroque poetry emerged, epitomized by Meléndez Valdés. He combined mid-century trends and influenced the next generation (Cienfuegos, Quintana).
The second half of the 18th century saw “Rococo” poetry: refined lexicon, short rhythmic verses, linear syntax, exclamations, soft colors, and mythological allusions, focusing on love and female beauty. Meléndez Valdés exemplifies this trend.
Rococo and Neoclassical bucolic poetry expressed a yearning for a simpler life, combining pleasure with innocence. This yearning foreshadows Romanticism, albeit with different horizons.
Rococo’s rise coincided with the spread of Locke and Condillac’s sensualist philosophy, which emphasized the senses in knowledge formation. Sensuality, central to Enlightenment thought, evolved into the core of Romantic sensibility.
Philanthropy also found expression in civic, scientific, and philosophical poetry. These elements combined to create a new, arguably pre-Romantic poetry. Jovellanos played a key role, urging a shift from pastoral poetry to a more engaged, realistic style.
2. The Romantic
General Introduction
Romanticism
Romanticism, originating in late 18th-century Germany and spreading across Europe in the early 19th century, challenged classical art and thought. It championed individual feeling over reason and rejected Enlightenment rules. Romanticism’s “official” birth is often linked to Friedrich Schlegel’s 1798 article defining Romantic poetry as a “progressive universal poetry” in constant evolution.
Romanticism abandoned classical inspiration and aesthetics, rejecting rigid genre divisions and Aristotelian unities. It emphasized internal inspiration and a holistic representation of humanity.
Dissatisfied with immediate reality, Romantics explored remote cultures, seeking connections with nature. Unlike the Enlightenment, they valued nature’s mysterious forces, promoting free expression of sentiment over imitation. Folk poetry gained new recognition as the “voice of the soul.”
Post-Napoleon, the enlightened individual became a Romantic rebel, suffering from dissatisfaction and internal contradiction. Enlightenment optimism gave way to Romantic pessimism, marked by a sense of defeat in modern social life. Justice and morality yielded to fate and human evil.
The Romantic desired earthly goods and love, but glorified defeat as a mark of superior souls. Marginality, suicide, and blasphemy became common responses to internal conflict, rejecting divine and human laws. Satanism and figures like Lucifer, Cain, and Judas appeared as heroic.
Politically, Romanticism aligned with liberalism, challenging absolutism. Literature became a tool for disseminating new ideas.
Romanticism in Spain
Romanticism’s arrival in Spain is often dated to 1814, when Nicolás Böhl de Faber introduced Schlegel’s ideas. However, its most representative literary production occurred between 1834 and 1844.
Three generations of Spanish Romantic writers are identified:
- Those born between 1785 and 1799, who transitioned from Neoclassicism to Romanticism in exile after 1823 (e.g., Martínez de la Rosa, Alcalá Galiano, Duke of Rivas, Estébanez Calderón).
- Those born between 1800 and 1815, with neoclassical educations, who experienced the conflict between liberalism and repression (e.g., Espronceda, Larra, Escosura, Ayguals de Izco, Gutiérrez, Mesonero Romanos, López Soler, Hartzenbusch, Avellaneda, Gil y Carrasco).
- Those born between 1816 and 1825, with Romantic educations, who witnessed the movement’s decline (e.g., Zorrilla, Navarro Villoslada, Fernández y González, Coronado).
Characteristics of Spanish Romanticism
Romantic Themes
Love, both sentimental and passionate, is central to Spanish Romanticism. Sentimental love, expressed mainly in poetry, is melancholic, portraying love as an impossible dream and nature as a confidant.
Passionate love, prominent in theater, romance, and poetry, is sudden and violent, defying social conventions. It is typically unrequited, tragic, and impossible, leading to unhappiness, death, or cynicism.
Death is another key theme. Romantics viewed life as dark and painful, despising its loss. Death became a liberating choice, whether through heroic action, melancholy decline, or suicide.
Pessimism, the “mal du siècle,” pervades Romantic thought, exemplified by Larra and Espronceda. Satanism is less common, but present (e.g., Espronceda’s El Diablo Mundo). Anticlericalism criticized the Church’s role in absolutism and the Inquisition. Folk religiosity appeared in recreations of miracles and legends (e.g., Zorrilla).
Novels, dramas, and narrative poetry drew on national history, particularly the Middle Ages, seeking lessons for the present or projecting contemporary concerns. Civil wars and succession conflicts resonated with the current political climate.
Linked to liberalism, Romantic literature was often socially engaged. Freedom became a rallying cry, demanding rights in all spheres. Marginal figures like robbers, pirates, and beggars, resisting social integration, symbolized protest against societal ills.
Formal Features
Romanticism emphasized the environment, both natural and urban, with detailed descriptions. Nature reflected human feelings (e.g., storms mirroring inner turmoil, autumn landscapes evoking sadness).
Seas, forests, lakes, moonlit nights, graves, and historical cities with Gothic architecture and ruins became common settings.
A passion for mystery and the fantastic, often linked to medieval legends, characterized Romanticism. Strange voices, premonitions, dreams, and visions suggested a supernatural reality coexisting with the everyday.
Dreams represented wishes for happiness (“dreams of love,” “dreams of glory”). Nightmares, associated with hellish visions, were expressed through terms like “ghost” or “phantom.”
Romantic characters often lacked psychological depth. Women were either innocent angels or evil temptresses. Men were gallant lovers, treacherous intriguers, or noble gentlemen.
Romantic Poetry in Spain
Romantic poets expressed their deepest feelings openly. Love, with its passions, melancholy, and despair, was a dominant theme. Another theme was the search for life’s meaning, sometimes expressing rebellion against God, compassion for the Devil, and the anguish of a lost individual.
Social and political poetry celebrated marginal figures as symbols of freedom and condemned tyranny. Descriptive nature poetry and narrative poetry, both historical (e.g., Duke of Rivas) and legendary (e.g., Zorrilla), flourished. Complex narrative poems like Espronceda’s El Estudiante de Salamanca also emerged.
This new poetic universe demanded new forms of expression. Metric freedom reflected the freedom of feeling. Combinations of stanzas and ascending/descending metric scales (e.g., El Estudiante de Salamanca) became common.
Sonnets declined due to their rigidity, while patriotic and philosophical songs favored silvas. The octava real (e.g., Espronceda’s Canto a Teresa) and the heroic romance (revived by the Duke of Rivas in El Moro Expósito) were also used. Octosyllabic and hendecasyllabic verses were common, alongside rediscovered meters like the hexameter and Alexandrine.
Renewal of Lyric Poetry in the Late 19th Century
Introduction
From mid-century, Campoamor initiated a renewal of themes and styles, culminating in Bécquer’s poetry around 1860.
For Realist poets, any human experience could be a poetic theme. Philosophy, science, love, and existential angst all found their place. The style was ironic, satirical, and concise, contrasting with Romantic verbosity.
Campoamor exemplifies Realist poetry: short, conceptually rich, and humorous.
Modern Spanish poetry begins with Bécquer, whose work perfectly fuses form and content, expressing modern sensibilities succinctly.
Rosalía de Castro, another important figure, explored the human condition in En las orillas del Sar. Both Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro favored assonant rhyme, creating a softer inner harmony.
Romantic Prose
Costumbrismo
Costumbrismo, focusing on contemporary customs and characters, developed within journalism. Romantic authors like Larra, Mesonero Romanos, and Estébanez Calderón cultivated the article, as did Realist novelists like Alarcón, Pereda, Valera, Pardo Bazán, and Galdós.
One type of costumbrismo described customs and attitudes statically, like a picture, with a weak plot and stereotypical characters. Others expressed nostalgia for the past, often with moralistic or didactic intentions, concluding with a character representing a specific type.
The Romantic Tale and Bécquer’s Legends
The short story gained literary prominence in 19th-century Romanticism. Associated with the press, it often reflected contemporary politics. During periods of censorship, stories provided a veiled outlet for expression.
Three main types of Romantic stories emerged: fictional, fantastic/marvelous, historical, and costumbrista. Fantastic tales, exploring mystery and terror, were most common. Marvelous tales, accepting the supernatural as normal, were less frequent. Historical stories, often set in the Middle Ages, were numerous. Costumbrista stories focused on contemporary life.
Bécquer’s Legends represent both a culmination and a beginning. His fantastic tales create tension between natural and supernatural realities. His lyrical prose, rich in rhythm, metaphors, and sensory imagery, marked a new direction in storytelling.