18th and 19th Century Socioeconomic Transformations in Europe
Demographic Revolution
In the 18th century, population growth was low due to high mortality rates, poor nutrition, inadequate hygiene, and a lack of vaccinations. In addition, wars and plagues contributed to the low population growth. There was also a high birth rate due to a lack of contraception and religious and cultural factors. However, in the 19th century, European mortality rates decreased in many places due to the development of medicine (vaccines), improved hygiene (soap), and better nutrition (higher production and defense against plagues).
Former Agricultural System
In the 18th century, 80% of the population were farmers. Land productivity and techniques were very low, and soil fertility was poor. Land was not left fallow, leading to soil depletion. Agriculture was also dependent on the weather. Therefore, subsistence crises were frequent. Due to feudal property rights, the land of the nobility could not be sold or confiscated. Consequently, the bourgeoisie could not acquire land. Feudal farmers were not allowed to keep surplus, so there was no incentive to invest. Open-field agriculture was common, with open areas and a two-field fallow system. Farmers were far apart, improvements were difficult to implement, and productivity was low.
Effects of the Discovery of America
The discovery of America by the Spanish and Portuguese had significant cultural and economic consequences. Missionaries spread Catholicism. American silver and gold became the world’s most important trade products. The Spanish brought diseases to America, and its people were subjected to hard labor in mines and agriculture. Many indigenous people died as a result. Black African slaves were brought to America to work in the mines. New navigational tools, such as the compass and astrolabe, were used for navigation. Books were published, and the world was discovered to be round. The Turkish closure of the spice route through Constantinople impacted Europe.
Why England?
The demographic and agricultural revolutions led many people to move to towns and cities, where they faced poor working conditions. Natural resources (coal, iron), raw materials, and energy were crucial for England. Technological innovation was promoted, leading to the development of the steam engine, machinery, and railways. England also benefited from cabotage and river navigation channels, resulting in a better and cheaper transport system. As an island, England did not have to pay tolls for passage. England controlled almost all global trade routes. Due to wars, working conditions were poor, and wages were low. England had a highly developed commercial system, unlike Spain, Portugal, and Holland in the 16th and 17th centuries.
New Forms of Work Organization
Workshops and factories were created all over the world. The steam engine aided industrial development. The factory system was implemented, with men and women working together. Mechanization, particularly in textiles and iron, created strong adaptability for workers, but working conditions were often poor. As machines became more prevalent, fewer workers were needed. Some workers turned to alcoholism. Parliament passed laws against vagrancy, and contracts were used to regulate labor. Taylorism was introduced to optimize equipment use and eliminate unnecessary movements by workers.