18th Century Colonialism: Types, Conflicts, and Consequences

Colony Types in the 18th Century Metropolis

The 18th-century metropolis saw the rise of trade and shipping companies representing colonial interests. Management of these colonies took various forms:

• Strategic Bases: Established to maintain military control over vital routes (e.g., Gibraltar, Cyprus, Falkland Islands).
• Economic Foundations: Areas with little political control (e.g., Hong Kong, Macao).
• Settlement Colonies: Considered a second home for people from the metropolis (e.g., Canada, Australia, French Algeria).
• Colonies: Territories inhabited by natives but governed by colonial officials (e.g., Nigeria under British rule).
• Protectorates: Territories with some native political power, where colonial powers offered support and defense (e.g., Morocco, Egypt).
• Economic Colonialism: Focused on economic control without direct political intervention, but with military intervention if the economic system was threatened (e.g., China, Japan, Persia).
• Mandates: Created by the League of Nations after World War I to administer former colonies of defeated powers.

Chartism: A British Workers’ Movement

Chartism, a political movement comprised of trade union workers, sought universal suffrage and other measures outlined in the People’s Charter. It represented the British interpretation of popular and democratic liberalism. Although Parliament rejected their petitions, it granted work improvements, such as reducing the workday to 10 hours. This shift in focus towards better pay and working conditions de-emphasized political and revolutionary action.

Marxism had limited representation in the UK. Economic prosperity and colonial expansion prevented the politicization of union activities seen elsewhere in Europe.

Colonial Conflicts

While direct wars between European powers were rare (the Boer War being a conflict between the British Army and Dutch colonists, not Britain and the Netherlands), conflicts were often resolved through international conferences. However, conflicts did arise between European powers and external empires, such as the Spanish-American War and the Russo-Japanese War (won by Japan).

The pursuit of Weltpolitik (world politics) intensified colonial competition, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I, which began when there were no territories left to colonize.

A notable incident between Britain and France occurred in Fashoda, Sudan, where their armies met due to their ambitions to expand their African empires. A diplomatic solution was reached, with Britain retaining control of Sudan.

The discovery of gold and diamond mines in Transvaal led to two Boer Wars, resulting in the annexation of the Transvaal and Orange Free State into the Cape Colony, forming the Union of South Africa in 1910.

Indigenous Resistance

Conflicts between colonial powers and native populations varied greatly. Italy suffered a significant defeat in its attempt to colonize Ethiopia in 1896, leaving Ethiopia free from European occupation until 1935.

The Sepoy Rebellion in India arose from resistance to the Anglicization of Indian culture, particularly among those who lost power and wealth under British rule.

While never a colony or protectorate, China was heavily influenced by Western powers. The Boxer Rebellion was a violent reaction against this European influence.

Economic and Political Consequences of Colonialism

• Economic Consequences: European powers dominated the global economy, benefiting from the international division of labor. Raw materials were extracted from colonies, enriching financial and trade groups in the metropolis. Modern transportation, commercial agriculture, and European investment facilitated modernization and the development of native capitalism.
• Political Consequences: Arbitrary allocation of territories, disregarding tribal, ethnic, and native cultures, led to conflicts in regions like the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda. Westernization significantly impacted political elites, while indigenous groups often maintained their lifestyles. Pressure from the French Revolution’s ideals, religious groups, and liberal thought led to the abolition of slavery, championed by the Church.