18th Century Europe: From Absolutism to Enlightenment
1. The 18th Century in Europe
Master’s Agriculture
From an economic perspective, agriculture dominated. Subsistence farming and a three-year crop rotation system with fallow were common. Crops dictated the rhythm of an economy vulnerable to subsistence crises—periods of food shortages and price increases. These crises caused hunger, misery, and sometimes riots. The nobility and clergy, owning vast inherited estates, controlled the land. Most people were peasants, working their masters’ lands and burdened by heavy taxes.
An Absolute Monarchy
The king held absolute power. The governed were subjects with no rights. The king’s absolute power was supported by advisory institutions.
Economic Expansion
The Treaty of Utrecht (1713), ending the War of the Spanish Succession, ushered in international balance. Conflicts were addressed through treaties and alliances. The population grew due to peace, fewer epidemics, and a better economic situation. This increased demand for products, leading to price increases and higher production. Monarchies fostered this growth through agricultural reforms, financing luxury goods manufacturing, and protecting trading companies. Maritime trade and colonialism expanded significantly.
2. An Unequal Society
A key feature of the old regime was civil inequality. Society was divided into two distinct groups:
- The Privileged: They owned most of the land, held all important positions, and paid no taxes.
- The Nobility: They lived off land income and accumulated wealth.
- The Clergy: They lived off income from their lands and tithes (a tax on farmers). This group wasn’t homogenous; the higher clergy enjoyed luxury, while the lower clergy lived modestly.
- The Underprivileged (The Third Estate): This sector lacked privileges and comprised the majority of the population, diverse in economic and social status.
- The Bourgeoisie: Large traders, boatmen, and artisans. They were financially well-off but lacked political influence.
- The Working Classes and Peasants: Urban manual workers and the largest population group. Peasants faced harsh conditions, working the privileged’s land and paying manorial rights.
3. Enlightenment Thought
What is Enlightenment?
An intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe challenging old regime principles. Influenced by John Locke (division of powers) and Isaac Newton (scientific method), it championed reason as the sole means of understanding the world. Enlightenment thinkers believed humanity was driven by intellect, and knowledge was the basis of happiness. They promoted education, progress, and tolerance, criticizing religious intolerance. Most were believers but rejected the superiority of one religion over others, establishing moral codes based on reason.
Philosophers of the Enlightenment
Enlightenment ideas were spread by French thinkers who advocated freedom and equality.
- Economic Thought: Physiocracy replaced mercantilism. Physiocrats believed agriculture was the basis of wealth, supporting private property, free trade, and opposing state intervention.
- Political Thought: Opposing absolutism, Enlightenment thinkers developed liberalism. Montesquieu advocated the division of powers. Rousseau defined the social contract and popular sovereignty. Voltaire defended a parliament limiting the king’s power and a fairer tax system.
4. The Decline of Absolutism
British Revolutions
In late 17th-century Holland and England, political changes limited the monarchy’s power. Enlightenment ideas led to enlightened despotism. In England, real power was limited by Parliament (Lords and Commons). Monarchs needed Parliament’s approval for taxes and war. The Stuarts tried to rule without Parliament, leading to civil war. In 1649, Charles I was executed, and a republic was declared. Oliver Cromwell led the change, but the monarchy was restored after his death. Charles II controlled Parliament, which voted for habeas corpus in 1679. In 1689, a second revolution ended absolute monarchy. William of Orange accepted the crown with a Bill of Rights limiting his power. England became the first limited monarchy, inspiring French Enlightenment philosophers.
Enlightened Despotism
Frederick II of Prussia, Maria Theresa, Catherine of Russia, and Charles III of Spain tried to reconcile absolutism with Enlightenment ideas. They promoted reforms in administration, education, agriculture, manufacturing, and trade, but retained absolute power. These reforms paved the way for 19th-century liberal revolutions.
5. The American Revolution
The thirteen English colonies in North America rebelled against British rule, becoming the first government based on equality and freedom. Influenced by Enlightenment ideas, they opposed British taxes and commercial monopoly. Lacking parliamentary representation, they ignored British laws. On July 4, 1776, they declared independence, asserting the right to liberty and happiness. With European help, they won the war. In 1783, Britain recognized their independence. George Washington became the first president. The 1787 Constitution established a republic with a federal structure, guaranteeing freedom of religion, press, speech, assembly, and trial by jury.
6. 18th Century Spain: The Bourbons
The War of Succession (1701-1714)
- Causes: Charles II died without an heir, naming Philip of Bourbon (Louis XIV’s grandson) king. Britain, Holland, and Austria opposed this, supporting Archduke Charles.
- Development: The conflict was international and internal. Aragon supported Charles, while Castile supported Philip.
- Consequences: The Treaty of Utrecht recognized Philip V as king. Britain gained Gibraltar and Minorca.
7. Bourbon Reforms
Following the French model, the Bourbons introduced absolutism in Spain, revoking privileges. The Nueva Planta decrees unified Spanish laws under Castilian rule. A centralized government was established.