18th Century Europe: Revolutions and Their Impact
The Eighteenth Century: The Crisis of the Old Regime
The Era of Revolutions
The Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century (The Age of Enlightenment)
An intellectual movement in Europe that went against the old regime (absolute monarchy) and preached the separation of powers:
- Executive power (government)
- Legislative power (parliament)
- Judicial power (courts)
Key thinkers: John Locke, Isaac Newton, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau.
Independence of the United States of America
1773: 13 British colonies resent the taxes imposed by the metropolis (London). Throwing boxes of tea into the sea in protest (Boston Tea Party).
1776: (July 4) The Philadelphia Declaration of Independence of the United States is drawn up (preamble written by Thomas Jefferson).
1787: 1st Constitution: federal republic, each district is capable of self-government.
War of Spanish Succession
Charles II died childless. In 1700, Crown Prince Felipe de Borbon, son of his nephew, was called. Powers (Britain, Holland, Portugal, and the Austrian Empire) did not want to strengthen European power and chose Prince Charles of Austria. Castile was in favor of the Bourbons and the crown of Aragon in Austria. The Felipistes gained victory in Almansa (1707) and occupied Valencia and Aragon. In 1713, Archduke Charles of Austria inherited the crown: Britain and the Netherlands withdrew support from the Archduke and signed the treaty (and recognized Philip V, losing Spanish territories such as Milan, Naples, Flanders, Sardinia, and Minorca until 1802, Gibraltar) Utrecht (1713). The war ended on September 11, 1714, when Philip V’s troops occupied Barcelona.
Catalan Resistance
Signed Peace of Utrecht, the Catalan courts decided to continue the war. 40,000 soldiers encircled Barcelona, defended by 6,000 soldiers. On September 11, 1714, Barcelona fell, with Chief Counsel Rafael Casanova and Army Chief of Villarreal, Antonio, being captured.
Decree of the New Plant
Prince Philip decided to impose the laws of the Spanish language in Catalonia.
Nationalism and Liberalism
The French Revolution (1789)
Causes:
- Poor harvests since 1760.
- Price hikes.
- The bourgeoisie wanted to have more political weight.
- Financial crisis (the monarchy had many expenses).
Start: The privileged refused to pay taxes and demanded Louis XVI to convene the States General (nobles, clergy, and the third state [required vote per person and not for stamens. Draw up a constitution in the national assembly meeting]).
End of the Old Regime: The people of Paris supported the National Assembly and assaulted the Bastille on July 14, 1789. Anti-insurrection in the country (the great fear). The declaration of human rights and freedoms was promulgated.
Phases of the Revolution
A Constitutional Monarchy: In 1789, the king and the nobility accepted the new situation (constitutional monarchy and Parliament). In 1791, a constitution was created which referred to the separation of powers (executive power [government], legislature [parliament], and the judiciary [judges]).
Democratic Republic: Trial of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (died at the guillotine). Robespierre, head of the government, created the National Salvation Committee and instituted Terror.
Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Robespierre was executed. A prestigious young general, Napoleon, gained power.
Napoleon (1799-1815)
He was crowned emperor in 1804. He created the civil code. He suffered defeat in Spain (1808) and Russia (1814). In 1815, he was finally defeated at Waterloo (Belgium).
Liberté, Egalité et Fraternité (Freedom, equality, and help)
The Restoration of Europe
In the 1815 Congress of Vienna, old monarchical absolutism returned to Europe. The Holy Alliance (Army of the absolute monarchies) was organized. But the ideas of the French Revolution continued (liberalism and nationalism).
Guillotine
A guillotine is an instrument consisting of a falling knife guided by two vertical uprights. It can fall freely vertically or be manually operated in various ways. Initially, the cutting blade was horizontal but later it was inclined to cut better and faster.
Congress of Vienna (1815)
Return to the absolutist European monarchies. The Holy Covenant was created (an agreement between the absolute monarchies for help). But revolutionary ideas influenced people (liberalism [separation of powers and private property]) and nationalism (nation is a group of individuals who have cultural ties of their own [religion, language, traditions, past customs …]).
Unification of Italy and Germany
In 1870, Italy and Germany were united.