18th-Century Europe: Societal Shifts and Rise of New Ideologies
18th-Century Europe: Societal Shifts and the Rise of New Ideologies
The Old Regime in France and the Dawn of the Industrial Revolution
Key Features of the Old Regime
- Economics: Characterized by a subsistence economy prone to cyclical crises. Predominantly agricultural, with land ownership concentrated in the hands of the nobility and clergy.
- Politics: Absolute monarchy of divine origin, with a concentration of powers in the monarch who held sovereignty and was not accountable to anyone. The monarch relied on bureaucracy, the army, and various institutions.
- Society: Divided into privileged and unprivileged estates, marked by a rigid social structure and civil inequality.
Factors Contributing to the Decline of the Old Regime
An economic expansion phase, favored by peace, led to:
- Population growth, increased demand, and a rise in prices and products.
- Monarchies practiced economic protectionism. Mercantilism was the dominant economic theory in the 18th century, asserting that a country’s wealth was determined by the amount of gold and silver it possessed. Kings actively intervened in the economy, setting tariffs and taxes.
- Improved communications fostered growth in trade, especially with America, including the slave trade.
The Enlightenment: A New Era of Thought
Characteristics of 18th-Century Enlightenment
Faith in reason (knowledge), the pursuit of happiness (material well-being), education, progress, tolerance, and moral codes dictated by reason.
Philosophers of the Enlightenment
Advocated for equality (based on personal worth and effort), freedom, social mobility, and merit.
Economic Thought
Enlightened thinkers rejected mercantilism and proposed physiocracy, which defended private property, economic freedom of commerce and industry, and opposed state intervention in the economy.
Political Thought
Opposition to absolutism and advocacy for political liberalism, including the division of powers, national sovereignty, and parliaments to limit royal power. They also proposed a new tax system.
British Revolutions of the 17th Century
1. In the 17th century, a new dynasty, the Stuarts, attempted to govern without the scrutiny of Parliament and arrested those who opposed them. These actions led to a civil war between supporters of Parliament and the absolute monarchy.
2. The second revolution in 1689 definitively ended the absolute monarchy of the Stuarts. Parliament offered the crown to William of Orange, who swore to uphold the Bill of Rights, limiting the monarch’s powers.
Enlightened Despotism
Some rulers adopted a reformist approach, acting for the good of the people while retaining decision-making power. Reforms included streamlining state administration, modernizing agriculture, developing manufacturing, and partially liberalizing trade.
The American Revolution
Thirteen British colonies were established on the east coast of America. Residents of these colonies were aware of the political processes in Great Britain and the ideas of equality, freedom, and tolerance emanating from enlightened Europe.
In June 1776, delegates from the 13 colonies, gathered in Philadelphia, drafted the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America.
In 1787, the new state drafted the first American Constitution. The text ensured the separation and balance of powers and established a republican form of government.
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
Philip V faced opposition from Archduke Charles of Austria. This confrontation led to the War of the Spanish Succession, which was both an international and internal conflict in Spain.
In 1713, Archduke Charles inherited the Austrian crown upon his brother’s death. The Habsburg Netherlands and Great Britain withdrew their support and signed the Treaty of Utrecht with Archduke Charles, ending the international conflict and recognizing Philip V as King of Spain.
Bourbon Absolutism in Spain
The first Spanish Bourbons (Philip V and Ferdinand VI) followed the centralized French model of absolutism implemented by their relatives. All powers resided in the monarch, who was assisted by secretaries (ministers) in governing.