18th Century Social and Political Upheaval: Europe and America
Unit 1: 18th-Century Social and Political Review
1. The Old Regime: Characteristics
At the beginning of the 18th century, most of Europe existed under the Old Regime. This term defines European societies of the modern age that maintained a way of life based on:
- A stately agrarian economy
- Absolute monarchy
- Stratified society
- Stagnant population due to periodic demographic crises
2. Manorial Agriculture
Economically, agriculture dominated. Subsistence farming and a three-year rotation system with fallow land resulted in low yields. Production focused on consumption, with limited crop specialization and few exchanges in local or regional markets. Livestock production remained restricted by the need for staple food grains.
3. Absolute Monarchy
Politically, the king held absolute power, believed to be divinely ordained. While aided by advisory institutions like the Council of States, the king answered to no one. Certain matters required consultation with parliaments (States-General in France, Courts in Spain), composed of representatives from the three estates, primarily for approving new taxes.
4. Economic Expansion
The 18th century enjoyed relative international peace and a period of balance. Europe’s population grew substantially, from 100 to 200 million between 1650 and 1800, due to fewer epidemics, new crops (potatoes, corn), and an improved economic situation. Increased demand led to rising prices, higher profits for landowners, and increased production.
5. Colonial Trade and the Slave Trade
European maritime trade, especially with the Americas, expanded significantly. Ships from Britain, Holland, France, Spain, and Portugal exchanged European manufactured goods for colonial raw materials. Products like sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cocoa became common in Europe. The basis of this trade was the triangular trade, heavily reliant on the slave trade. Slaves were captured in Africa, transported to the Americas (primarily the Caribbean islands, Brazil, and the English colonies), and sold in brutal conditions for subhuman labor on agricultural plantations.
6. Stratified Society
Civil inequality marked society, divided into privileged groups (nobility and clergy) and the unprivileged (commoners or Third Estate). This closed system allowed little social mobility. The nobility and clergy, owning most of the land and monopolizing all official positions, were exempt from taxes (2-3% of the population). The nobility lived on accumulated wealth and rents, while the clergy derived income from land exploitation and tithes. The clergy was not homogenous; the higher clergy enjoyed luxury, while the lower clergy lived modestly. The Third Estate (90-95% of the population) comprised diverse groups (middle class, artisans, farmers) united by their opposition to privilege and feudalism, and their demand for civic equality. The bourgeoisie (artisans, merchants, bankers) were economically active but lacked political influence. Urban popular classes included small craftsmen, servants, soldiers, and factory workers. Peasants, the largest group, endured harsh conditions, heavy taxes, and feudal obligations.
7. Enlightenment Principles
The Enlightenment, an 18th-century intellectual movement, inspired the American and French Revolutions. Influenced by figures like Isaac Newton (scientific method) and John Locke (separation of powers), Enlightenment thinkers, primarily French, championed reason as the sole means of understanding the world. They rejected medieval geocentrism, religious intolerance, and tradition. As deists, they believed in a benevolent natural order and proclaimed man’s inherent right to happiness.
8. The Three Powers
[Content needed describing the three powers: legislative, executive, and judicial, and their functions]
9. Enlightenment Alternatives to the Old Regime
The Enlightenment proposed the following alternatives to the Old Regime:
- Social: Equality, freedom, social mobility, and meritocracy
- Political: Separation of powers instead of absolutism
- Economic: Physiocracy instead of mercantilism
10. The Two English Revolutions
Since the Middle Ages, royal power in England was limited by Parliament (Houses of Lords and Commons). In the 17th century, the Stuart dynasty attempted to rule without parliamentary control, leading to civil war. King Charles I was executed, and a republic was proclaimed under Oliver Cromwell, which eventually became a military dictatorship. After Cromwell’s death, the monarchy was restored, but Charles II had to accept parliamentary control and the Habeas Corpus Act, protecting individual liberties. A second revolution led to the Bill of Rights under William of Orange, limiting the monarch’s power and establishing a limited monarchy, separating executive and legislative branches, and an independent judiciary. This model influenced French Enlightenment thinkers.
11. The English Political System
[Content needed describing the English political system in more detail]
12. Enlightened Despotism
Most European monarchs retained absolute power. Some, like Frederick II of Prussia, Maria Theresa and Carlos III of Spain, attempted to reconcile absolutism with Enlightenment ideals of progress and modernity. Enlightened despots implemented reforms like nationalizing state administration, education reform, agricultural modernization, and partial deregulation of production and trade. However, these reforms were limited, as they failed to address the fundamental issues of social inequality and absolute power, paving the way for liberal revolutions in the 19th century.
13. U.S. Independence
The thirteen English colonies on North America’s east coast revolted against British rule in the 18th century, inspired by Enlightenment ideals. They opposed taxes (especially the tea tax) and Britain’s trade monopoly. Lacking representation in Parliament, they declared their refusal to obey laws not passed by their representatives. On July 4, 1776, they declared independence, with a declaration written by Thomas Jefferson, emphasizing the rights to liberty and the pursuit of happiness.
14. The U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights
The American colonists, aided by European volunteers, fought a long war against Britain, achieving victory at Yorktown. George Washington became the first president. In 1787, the U.S. adopted the first written constitution, establishing a republic with a separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial), a federal structure granting states self-governance, and a federal government responsible for foreign affairs, defense, and finance. The Bill of Rights guaranteed freedoms of religion, press, speech, assembly, and trial by jury, along with due process of law.
15. Definitions
- Mercantilism:
- [Definition needed]
- Physiocracy:
- [Definition needed]
- Social Contract:
- [Definition needed]
- National Sovereignty:
- [Definition needed]
- Cathedral:
- A metaphor for the Enlightenment, symbolizing the light of reason dispelling the darkness of ignorance.
- Inalienable Rights:
- Rights inherent to every human being from birth.