18th Century Spain: Bourbon Dynasty, Reforms, and Enlightenment
Eighteenth-Century Spain
War of Succession and Treaty of Utrecht
Charles II bequeathed the Spanish kingdoms to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France and great-grandson of Philip IV. Another contender for the throne was Charles of Habsburg, son of the German Emperor and descendant of Philip III. European powers opposed Bourbon expansion, leading to the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1715) between the Habsburgs, England, United Provinces, Prussia, Portugal, Savoy, and the Bourbons. Initially an international conflict, it became a civil war in Castile, allied with Philip V, and the eastern realms, supporting Charles of Habsburg. Catalan business elites backed Charles, who briefly occupied Madrid twice, repelled from Barcelona. Philip V gained control of all territories except Catalonia and the Balearics. The Peace of Utrecht, comprising the treaties of Utrecht (Netherlands, 1713) and Rastadt (Germany, 1714), ended the war. The allies abandoned Catalonia and the Balearic Islands, which fell in 1714 and 1715, respectively. This war consolidated England’s power, strengthened the Habsburgs, gave Sacramento to Portugal, and shifted Spain’s foreign policy.
Dynastic Change: The First Bourbons
The War of Succession strengthened the absolute monarchy, with Spain adopting the French absolutist model. Philip V initially employed foreign advisors but later favored Spanish absolutist bureaucrats and reformists like Melchor de Macanaz and José Patiño, forming the first generation of reformist officials. Ferdinand VI (1746-1759) continued this trend, entrusting the government to bureaucrats such as José de Carvajal and the Marquis de la Ensenada. These officials, from the lower nobility, depended on royal favor. Their reforms aimed to consolidate absolute monarchy through centralization, economic intervention, and control over the Church.
State Reorganization: Centralized Monarchy
Government reforms focused on centralization and uniformity, placing power in the hands of the king and his ministers, with equal application to all subjects. The advisory system was sidelined in favor of the Royal Council of Castile, which governed the entire kingdom. The Nueva Planta decrees suspended privileges in the eastern realms, imposing Castilian laws and customs, and removing internal trade barriers. However, the Basque Country, Navarre, and some eastern territories retained certain privileges. Governors and captains general were appointed to control the provinces. Few Cortes (parliaments) were convened, mainly for the swearing-in of heirs. The army and navy were reformed, with recruitment through volunteers, vagrancy laws, and conscription. A Royal Guard and a powerful navy with a unified flag (later the Spanish flag) were established. A concordat with the Vatican (1753) granted the king universal patronage rights. Mercantilism was adopted to increase fiscal resources for military spending.
Enlightened Despotism: Reign of Charles III
The reign of Charles III (1759-1788) introduced enlightened despotism to Spain, characterized by rationalism and anti-traditionalism (Enlightenment ideals), without altering the social system or monarchy. Continuous wars with Britain led to borrowing to finance them. Charles III governed with ministers like the Marquis de Esquilache and Grimaldi, who promoted Spanish politicians in the Council of Castile, such as Campomanes and Floridablanca. Foreign-influenced policies caused social discontent, and increased taxes and wheat prices triggered the 1766 Esquilache Riots, sparked by a ban on long coats and wide-brimmed hats. The populace stormed the houses of Grimaldi and Esquilache and confronted the royal guard. This uprising led to a more cautious approach to reforms, the creation of municipal offices, concessions to the Church, and the preservation of noble privileges. During Charles III’s reign, agricultural production increased, a free market was promoted, social stability improved, and state revenues soared. Land ownership was restructured, free trade in grain and livestock was permitted, Mesta privileges were limited, new lands were colonized, public works were undertaken, and the national debt was financed.
Evolution of Foreign Policy in Europe
Bourbon foreign policy aimed to recover territories lost in the Treaty of Utrecht, leading to conflict with Great Britain. Spain allied with France (which had interests in the Indies) through dynastic ties, forming alliances known as the Family Compacts. The first (1733) allowed Charles, son of Philip V (later Charles III), to become King of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily). The second (1743) secured the Duchy of Parma for another son of Philip V, Philip. Ferdinand VI maintained neutrality. The third Family Compact (1761) led to Spain’s involvement in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), resulting in the cession of Florida to Britain in exchange for Louisiana. Spain also participated in the American War of Independence (1775-1783), regaining Florida and Minorca, and capturing Sacramento, but failing to recover Gibraltar.
Bourbon Policies in Latin America
Absolutist policies aimed to strengthen state structures in the Americas for more effective exploitation, increased revenue, and Spanish control. Administrative measures included a management reshuffle that marginalized Creoles, a freeze on the sale of offices, and the appointment of corregidores (royal officials). Re-immigration from northern Spain was encouraged. The Church’s power was weakened, a standing army was created (including Creoles and mestizos), and tax burdens were increased, with riots suppressed. Trade policies aimed to revive commerce, maintaining America as a source of raw materials and a market for Spanish goods. Foreign competition was eliminated, colonial industries were suppressed, Spanish products were favored, and the monopoly of Seville and Cadiz was ended, allowing other Spanish regions and ports to participate. Trading companies were granted monopolies in certain areas. Foreign interference was combatted, and registered ships were used to prevent British attacks. The monopoly of Cadiz was abolished, opening trade to other Spanish ports.
The Enlightenment in Spain
The Enlightenment, an 18th-century European intellectual movement, formed the basis for early Bourbon reforms, especially under Charles III. Enlightenment thinking emphasized reason, criticism, national economic development, scientific advancement, education, progress, and happiness. It sought to reform the social, political, and economic ancien régime. Enlightenment ideas spread through academies, new higher education institutions, economic societies of friends of the country, and consulates. Key intellectuals and artists included Mayans, Siscar, and Feijoo in the first half of the century, and Jovellanos in the second half. The most significant scientific event was the Franco-Spanish expedition to Peru to determine the Earth’s size and shape. Notable figures in medicine included Mutis, and in literature, Cadalso, Meléndez Valdés, and Moratín. Goya was the leading painter. Art served a didactic purpose, favoring rationalism and neoclassicism, evident in the architecture of Charles III’s urban reforms in Madrid.