18th Century Spain: Enlightenment & Bourbon Reforms

Posted on Nov 2, 2024 in Geography

1. Introduction: The 18th Century – The Age of Enlightenment

The 18th century, known as the Enlightenment, was a pivotal period in European history, particularly in Spain. It marked a significant shift from the Middle Ages and laid the groundwork for modern society. This era was characterized by:


a. The End of the Ancien Régime

The 18th century witnessed the decline of the Ancien Régime, a European social and political system rooted in the Middle Ages. The Ancien Régime was defined by:

  • A stratified society with rigid social classes
  • Absolutist rule by monarchs with unchecked power
  • A subsistence economy primarily focused on agriculture

b. The Rise of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emphasized reason, knowledge, and individual liberty as the primary means of societal progress. It challenged traditional authority and advocated for greater freedom and equality.

c. Enlightened Despotism

In politics, the Enlightenment gave rise to Enlightened Despotism, a form of government where absolute monarchs embraced Enlightenment ideals and implemented reforms to improve the lives of their subjects. However, they maintained their absolute power. The motto of Enlightened Despotism was “All for the people but without the people.”

d. Economic Liberalism

In economics, the 18th century saw the emergence of economic liberalism, which promoted free trade and minimal government intervention in the economy. This period also witnessed the Agricultural Revolution, which led to increased food production and paved the way for the Industrial Revolution.

e. The French Revolution and Political Liberalism

The end of the 18th century was marked by the French Revolution, a pivotal event that championed political liberalism and the equality of citizens. It had a profound impact on European politics and inspired movements for political change across the continent.

f. The Bourbon Dynasty in Spain

In Spain, the 18th century saw the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty. The kings who reigned during this period were:

  • Philip V (in two separate reigns, with the brief interruption of Louis I)
  • Ferdinand VI
  • Charles III
  • Charles IV

2. The War of the Spanish Succession and the Treaty of Utrecht

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) erupted following the death of Charles II of Spain without an heir. He had named Philip of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, as his successor. This decision led to a major European conflict.

a. The Grand Alliance

In Europe, the Grand Alliance was formed to oppose Philip’s claim to the Spanish throne. The alliance consisted of:

  • The Holy Roman Empire
  • England
  • The Dutch Republic
  • Portugal
  • Savoy

These countries feared that a union between Spain and France under Bourbon rule would create a superpower that would disrupt the balance of power in Europe and hinder their economic interests.

b. Division in Spain

Spain itself was divided over the succession. Castile largely supported Philip of Bourbon, hoping that the Bourbon dynasty would restore Spain’s past glory. Aragon, on the other hand, favored Archduke Charles of Austria.

c. Theaters of War

The War of the Spanish Succession was fought on multiple fronts:

  • The Spanish Netherlands and Milan, defended by the French
  • The Spanish colonies in the Americas, where Spain fought against England
  • The Iberian Peninsula, where a civil war raged between supporters of Philip and Charles

d. The Peace of Utrecht

In 1711, the Holy Roman Emperor died without an heir, and Archduke Charles became the new emperor. This event led England to withdraw from the Grand Alliance. Philip of Anjou renounced his claim to the French throne, paving the way for peace negotiations.

In 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht was signed, officially ending the war. The treaty had significant consequences:

  • Philip V was recognized as King of Spain.
  • Austria gained control of the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia.
  • England emerged as a major naval and commercial power, gaining Gibraltar, Menorca, and access to trade with the Spanish colonies, including a monopoly on the slave trade.
  • Savoy acquired Sicily.
  • Portugal gained territories in the Americas.
  • Spain lost significant territories and emerged as the biggest loser of the war. France, Spain’s ally, signed the “Family Pact” with Spain.

3. The New Organization of the Spanish State Under the Bourbons

The arrival of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain brought about a series of reforms aimed at centralizing power and modernizing the state:

a. Reinforcement of Royal Power

The Bourbon kings strengthened their absolute power, although they still faced some constraints from the remnants of the old regime.

b. Centralization of the State

The Bourbons implemented a centralized state with uniform laws throughout the country, replacing the diverse regional jurisdictions that had existed previously.

c. Royal Lawmaking

The king became the sole lawmaker, with the power to enact laws that applied to the entire kingdom.

d. Nueva Planta Decrees

Following a rebellion in the former Crown of Aragon against Philip V, the Nueva Planta Decrees were issued. These decrees:

  • Abolished the courts, laws, privileges, and institutions of Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. Castilian laws were imposed throughout these regions.
  • Dissolved the regional parliaments (Cortes) of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, and the Balearic Islands, integrating them into a single national parliament, the Cortes of Spain.
  • Replaced the viceroyalties with provinces, each headed by a captain-general appointed by the king, who held military, civil, and judicial authority.
  • Filled key administrative positions with Castilians.
  • Established the Secretaries of State, the predecessors of modern government ministers.
  • Introduced intendants at the local level, replacing the corregidores, with responsibilities for legal, tax, and military recruitment matters.

e. Uniform Taxation

The Bourbons attempted to implement a uniform tax system across the kingdom but faced resistance in the Basque Country and Navarre, which retained their traditional tax exemptions and military privileges.

4. The Enlightenment in Spain: Enlightened Despotism and Reform

The Enlightenment profoundly influenced 18th-century Spain. Enlightenment thinkers became the driving force behind many reforms during this period.

a. Key Features of Enlightenment Thought

  • Emphasis on reason and critical thinking to improve society
  • Promotion of national economic development, particularly in agriculture and livestock
  • Importance of education and scientific advancement
  • Pursuit of happiness and well-being

b. Dissemination of Enlightenment Ideas

Enlightenment ideas were spread through various channels:

  • Academies: Modeled after French academies, these institutions focused on specific fields like science and language.
  • Economic Societies of Friends of the Country: Founded in most provinces, these societies aimed to promote economic development and education.
  • Media: Critical publications played a crucial role in disseminating Enlightenment ideas.
  • Salons: Gatherings in private homes, particularly among the educated elite, provided a forum for discussing Enlightenment thought.

c. Enlightened Despotism in Spain

Enlightened Despotism became the dominant political model in 18th-century Spain. While monarchs embraced Enlightenment ideas and implemented reforms, they were unwilling to relinquish their absolute power or alter the existing social hierarchy.

  • The monarchy took the lead in implementing reforms aimed at improving society and increasing state revenues.
  • Efforts were made to establish a single tax system applicable to all estates and territories. The Marquis of Ensenada’s “Ensenada Cadastre” aimed to collect population data to improve tax collection.
  • Public works projects were initiated to promote trade and development. The Canal de Castilla, intended to connect Castile with the Cantabrian Sea for river transportation and irrigation, was started but not completed.
  • Royal factories were established to produce goods like tapestries and porcelain, aiming to generate revenue for the state.

d. Charles III and Reforms

In Spain, Enlightenment reforms were implemented later than in other European countries. Charles III was the monarch who enacted the most significant reforms during this period.

State Reforms

Charles III implemented various institutional reforms to modernize the state administration.

Social Reforms

  • Agriculture: The Land Reform Act, advocated by Jovellanos and Campomanes, criticized the large amount of land held in mortmain (dead hands) by the Church and nobility, which could not be sold or divided. They sought to increase agricultural production through irrigation and cultivation of more land. They championed physiocracy, an economic theory that emphasized the importance of agriculture.
  • Industry: Critics targeted guilds for their monopolies, which were seen as hindering product quality and innovation.
  • Trade: Efforts were made to develop the domestic market and trade with the colonies. Measures were taken to protect domestic industries and improve communications.
  • Finance: The National Bank of San Carlos was established to manage public debt through the issuance of government bonds (vales reales).

5. Bourbon Policies in the Americas

The Bourbon monarchs aimed to transform the American colonies into a source of revenue for the Spanish crown rather than an economic burden. They implemented a series of administrative and trade reforms to achieve this goal.

Administrative Reforms

  • The Viceroyalty of Peru was divided into smaller administrative units, creating the Viceroyalties of New Granada and La Plata.
  • Colonial offices were no longer sold but were instead filled by Spaniards appointed by the crown.
  • The power of the Church in the colonies was weakened in favor of the monarchy.
  • A standing army was established in the colonies, with Spanish officers in command.
  • Taxes were increased.

Trade Reforms

  • The Bourbons sought to make the colonies exporters of raw materials and importers of manufactured goods from Spain.
  • The industrial development of the colonies was restricted.
  • Efforts were made to reduce foreign competition in colonial trade.

Measures to Achieve Trade Objectives

  • Monopolies were established on certain colonial products like cocoa and coffee.
  • The monopoly of Cadiz on trade with the Americas was abolished (previously held by Seville).
  • Measures were taken to combat smuggling and unregulated trade.