18th Century Spain: Politics, Culture, and Reform
The Eighteenth Century in Spain: Cultural and Political Developments
1. The Reign of Philip V (1700-1746)
The Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt (1713-1714), ending the War of the Spanish Succession, recognized Philip V as King of Spain. Spain ceded territories to Austria, the Duke of Savoy, and England (Gibraltar and Menorca). These treaties reinforced the idea of a continental balance of power. Spain faced two key challenges:
- Accepting or challenging the Treaty of Utrecht: Philip V, influenced by his second wife Elisabeth Farnese, pursued a policy of territorial expansion, orchestrated by Cardinal Giulio Alberoni. This policy ultimately failed due to opposition from the Quadruple Alliance (Austria, Holland, England, and France). However, by 1738, Spain secured recognition of Philip’s son, Charles (future Charles III), as King of Naples and Sicily.
- Choosing an alliance: After years of indecision, Spain allied with France against England, culminating in the “Family Pact” between the Bourbon dynasties. This led to Spanish involvement in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1738) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748).
2. The Reigns of Fernando VI and Charles III
Fernando VI (1746-1759) prioritized Spain’s economic recovery through political neutrality. Domestically, the Marquis of Ensenada implemented significant reforms. In 1748, Fernando secured the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla for his brother Philip. Charles III (1759-1788) shifted Spain’s foreign policy by signing the “Third Family Pact” (1761) and entering the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). Spain lost Florida, but later recovered it, along with Menorca, by supporting the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783).
3. The Reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)
Charles IV’s reign began with the convening of the Cortes (1789) to swear in the heir and abolish the Salic Law. The French Revolution significantly impacted Spanish policy. Prime Minister Floridablanca implemented censorship and restricted the entry of books to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas. His successor, the Count of Aranda, favored neutrality with France. However, Queen Maria Luisa and her lover, Manuel Godoy, orchestrated Aranda’s dismissal in 1792. Spain allied with England against France after the execution of Louis XVI in 1793. The resulting defeat in the War of the Pyrenees led to the loss of Santo Domingo (1795). Spain then allied with France against England, adhering to Napoleonic policies. This resulted in naval defeats at Cape St. Vincent (1797) and Trafalgar (1805), and the loss of Trinidad. The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) further solidified Spain’s dependence on France. Napoleon’s plans to invade Portugal through Spain led to the Mutiny of Aranjuez (1808), the fall of Godoy, and the abdication of Charles IV. Napoleon subsequently forced both Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to abdicate in his favor, installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. This triggered the Peninsular War (1808-1814).
4. State Organization and Reform
A. Centralization of the State
The Bourbon dynasty, influenced by the French model, centralized the Spanish state. The War of Succession provided a pretext to introduce changes, particularly in the rebellious realms. The need to finance the war demanded greater control over resources. The Cortes gradually lost prominence, with legislative power shifting to central institutions. While the Bourbon state significantly restructured the Austrian model, it wasn’t a complete rupture.
B. Financial Reform
The existing tax system was unequal, unfair, and insufficient. Reforms aimed to establish an effective collection system and unify taxes. The Campillo system, initiated in the Crown of Aragon and applied to Castile by Ensenada in 1749, sought to distribute taxes based on wealth and land ownership. However, opposition from the nobility and clergy hampered these efforts. Charles III founded the Banco de San Carlos (precursor to the Bank of Spain) to manage public debt.
C. Central Administration
Philip V introduced ministerial reforms, creating the War and Treasury departments in 1705. By 1714, four ministries were established: War, Navy and Indies, State, and Justice. Under Charles III, the number of ministries increased to seven, overseen by the Supreme Council of State. Technical efficiency was prioritized, with a new nobility of qualified individuals gaining influence. The Councils of Castile retained importance due to their diverse functions. The Councils of Treasury, War, Inquisition, and Indies also held significant power. In 1713, Philip V introduced the Salic Law, governing succession to the throne.
D. Local Government and Planning
The Nueva Planta decrees (1707-1716) established a centralized administration, abolishing the privileges of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, and Mallorca. These territories were subjected to Castilian law, governed by Captain Generals and Royal Audiencias. Navarre, Álava, Vizcaya, and Gipuzkoa retained their rights due to their support for Philip V. The creation of intendants (intendentes) was key to Bourbon control over local administration. They managed resources, finances, and promoted economic development. Corregidores gained importance in local governance. Under Charles III, popular participation was revitalized through joint deputies and the personeo liquidador (municipal oversight).
5. The Enlightenment in Spain
Spanish intellectuals, often employed by the Crown, promoted political reform. While critical of despotism, they saw it as a tool for modernization. Their approach was generally moderate, characterized by a Christian-influenced Enlightenment. Four phases can be identified:
- Early 18th century: Introduction of new philosophical and scientific ideas.
- From 1725: A more open environment, exemplified by Father Feijoo’s critical theater.
- Under Charles III: A flourishing of Enlightenment thought, supported by ministers like Aranda, Floridablanca, and Campomanes.
- From 1790: A backlash against the French Revolution.
Universities resisted reform, prompting the Crown to assert control and reduce ecclesiastical influence. The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 reflected both religious and political conflicts. Science and technology were highly valued. The Crown supported new learning through colleges and academies. The press played a crucial role in disseminating Enlightenment ideas.