18th Century Spanish Foreign Policy in Europe
Eighteenth Century Spain: The Development of Foreign Policy in Europe
Post-War of Succession Diplomacy
Following the War of Succession, Spanish diplomacy and the early Spanish army attempted to revise the Utrecht agreements on multiple fronts. One key objective was the denial of the French claim to the Spanish throne. However, the overarching goal of eighteenth-century Spanish foreign policy was the recovery of territories lost in the Peace of Utrecht, which inevitably meant confrontation with England. Spain sought to reclaim Gibraltar, Menorca, territories in the Americas, and increase Spanish influence in Italy.
Italian Ambitions
The focus on Italy was linked to the dynastic ambitions of Philip V’s second wife, Elizabeth Farnese. As an Italian, she aspired to see her son, the future Charles III, rule Italian territory. This personal ambition became a driving force in Spanish foreign policy during Philip V’s reign.
The first attempt to achieve this goal was a military expedition (1717-1724) that successfully occupied Sardinia and Sicily. However, Spain lacked allies in this endeavor and faced opposition from the Quadruple Alliance, leading to the expedition’s failure. In 1725, Spain approached Austria in another attempt to disrupt the continental balance. However, pressure from other European powers forced Spain to abandon this alliance and ultimately recognize the Peace of Utrecht. Subsequently, Spain signed a cooperation treaty with England and France, securing the Duchy of Parma for Charles in 1731.
Family Pacts and Wars
The outbreak of the War of Polish Succession in 1733 prompted Spain to sign the First Family Compact with France. This aimed to create a united front against the British and exploit the situation to seize Italian territories from Austria. The peace agreement that concluded the war granted Spain control of Sicily and Naples, but in exchange, Spain had to relinquish the Duchy of Parma. In 1735, Charles was proclaimed King of the Two Sicilies.
The War of Austrian Succession led to the signing of the Second Family Compact between France and Spain in 1743. This time, Spain supported France against the German Emperor and the United Kingdom. For their participation, the Spanish Bourbons were rewarded with the Duchy of Parma, which was given to Philip and Elizabeth Farnese’s second son, Philip.
Shifting Foreign Policy under Ferdinand VI and Charles III
Some Spanish politicians recognized that the strategy of family pacts was not entirely beneficial to Spain. They advocated for a less aggressive foreign policy, a vision that gained traction during the reign of Ferdinand VI (1746-1759). Ferdinand’s reign saw a policy of neutrality and balance among the European powers. Spain distanced itself slightly from France and moved closer to England.
During the reign of Charles III (1759-1788), Spanish diplomacy aimed to reduce dependence on France and pursue a more independent foreign policy. Charles III’s foreign policy focused on the principle of “all or nothing.” Under the leadership of Floridablanca, Spanish commercial interests were prioritized, particularly in two areas: opening trade with the Islamic Mediterranean world and recognizing America as Spain’s most important commercial region. This led to a shift in focus from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean in the latter half of the century.
Conflicts with Britain and the American Revolution
America became a central cause of costly but unavoidable confrontations with Britain. Spain’s revitalized army, navy, and stabilized finances supported this endeavor. The objectives were to halt British expansion in the American colonies and recover Minorca and Gibraltar.
To counter British expansionism, Spain established a lasting agreement with France in 1761 through the Third Family Pact. This pact, signed during the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), obligated Spain to support France against Britain and its ally, Portugal. The goal was to contain British expansion in North America. However, Spain entered the conflict late and lacked sufficient naval resources, resulting in the temporary loss of Havana and Manila to the British. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 returned these cities to Spain in exchange for Florida. France compensated Spain with Louisiana.
The second major international conflict during Charles III’s reign was the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Spain and France supported the British colonies in their rebellion against Britain. The Peace of Versailles in 1783 restored Florida and Minorca to Spain, along with the city of Sacramento, which had been under Portuguese control since the Peace of Utrecht. However, Gibraltar remained under British control.
French Revolution and Napoleonic Era
The French Revolution erupted in 1789. In response to the revolution’s radical turn, Spain, under the leadership of Floridablanca, joined the league of European absolute monarchies formed in opposition to the new French government in 1791. In 1793, Spain intervened against the French Convention, driven by a desire to support the French Bourbon monarchy and uphold the obligations of the Family Pacts. The war was not a border conflict.
The new century saw Spain increasingly subservient to French foreign policy, evidenced by successive bilateral agreements. Napoleon’s imperialism was initially seen as a counterbalance to potential British expansionism. This dependence culminated in the Franco-Spanish naval defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, the most famous of the various conflicts in which Spain participated under French influence.