18th Century Spanish Literature: Enlightenment and Neoclassicism
XVIII Century European Literature: The Home of Modernity
The eighteenth century is a crucial period in the history of Western culture, marking the beginning of an expansive movement that continues to this day.
Social Changes
This era witnessed the rise and consolidation of the bourgeoisie, a class that would dismantle the old societal order based on estates and pave the way for a new class-based society.
Economic Transformations
Economically, the eighteenth century was pivotal for the industrialization process spearheaded by the bourgeoisie, leading to the formation of modern societies.
Political Landscape
Politically, the dominant regime was enlightened despotism, which blended a hierarchical structure with the economic empowerment of the bourgeoisie and the promotion of values like work and efficiency.
Cultural Shifts
Culturally, it was a time of optimism, marked by investments in innovation, reforms, and inventions, alongside the promotion of rational inquiry. Reason emerged as a driving force in society, contrasting with prior eras of obscurantism and superstition. Rationalism was championed as the sole path towards progress in various aspects of life. Consequently, the eighteenth century has been dubbed the Age of Enlightenment.
Spanish History in the 18th Century
The eighteenth century saw the establishment of a new monarchy in Spain following the death of the last Habsburg ruler, Charles II, without an heir. France succeeded in placing the Duke of Anjou on the Spanish throne as Philip V. However, Britain and Austria opposed this move and supported another candidate, Archduke Charles of Austria, leading to the War of the Spanish Succession.
Enlightenment thought, cultivated in France during the seventeenth century, gradually made its way into Spain. This was largely due to an unbalanced social structure, with a vast rural population juxtaposed against a privileged and tradition-bound nobility. Literacy rates were also very low. Consequently, cultural renewal, scientific advancements, and technological progress were slow and delayed. New ideas only began to spread during the reigns of Ferdinand VI and, more significantly, Charles III, who implemented successful social, agricultural, and educational reforms. The century concluded with the reign of Charles IV, which coincided with the onset of the War of Independence.
Social Developments
Socially, this period was characterized by population movements, with concentrations in Madrid, the Basque Country, and Catalonia – regions experiencing economic growth. The middle class expanded, while the nobility and clergy saw a decline in influence. The concepts of work and education were reevaluated, leading to an increase in university attendance. For the first time, education was viewed as a public service that should be overseen and directed by the state. Universities underwent reforms aimed at modernization, incorporating experimental science and rationalist methods. The work of Pablo de Olavide, who developed the General Curriculum of 1768, which prioritized scientific disciplines over philosophy and theology, deserves special mention.
Spanish Literature in the 18th Century
The eighteenth century witnessed the gradual decline of the Baroque style and the emergence of new literary movements.
Post-Baroque
This style, prevalent in the first half of the eighteenth century, maintained formal and thematic links with the previous century’s literature. It retained the intricate forms and concepts of Baroque culteranismo but replaced its pessimism with a more optimistic worldview. An example is the picaresque novel Life by Diego de Torres Villarroel, which, despite imitating Quevedo’s Buscón, tells the story of a bourgeois social climber who succeeds through merit.
Rococo
Rococo represents a playful and superficial artistic movement that emphasized good taste, flirtation, grace, and wit. Sensuality and gallantry were integral to this style, which can be seen as the intimate side of the Enlightenment.
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism was the official style of enlightened despotism and is considered the most characteristic literary movement of the eighteenth century. Its defining features include didacticism, utilitarianism, and the pursuit of reflective art grounded in reason. In contrast to imagination and originality, Neoclassicism promoted an austere art based on the imitation of classical models and the adoption of predefined aesthetic standards. Prescriptive literature, advocating a return to classical literature, became fashionable, particularly in theater, where the rule of the three unities was strictly enforced.
Preromanticism
Preromanticism introduced elements that transcended the realm of reason, foreshadowing the arrival of the Romantic style in the nineteenth century. However, it never completely abandoned rationality. Certain works exhibited a particular focus on melancholy, nocturnal landscapes, the veneration of nature’s forces, and funereal themes.
Edward Young (1683-1765)
This British poet is renowned for his melancholic reflections on life, death, and immortality, as expressed in his work Night Thoughts, also known as The Complaint, or Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality, a lengthy poem of approximately ten thousand verses. In this work, a solitary traveler engages in somber contemplation within a cemetery. Young belongs to the group known as the Graveyard Poets, a collection of pre-Romantic English poets from the eighteenth century who were characterized by their melancholic meditations on mortality within the setting of a graveyard. Young’s Night Thoughts had a significant influence on Spanish literature, particularly on José Cadalso, the author of Noches lúgubres (Gloomy Nights).
Prose: The Essay
While some forms of novelistic prose existed, the essay undoubtedly emerged as the most significant prose genre of the eighteenth century in Spain. This genre, perfectly aligned with the Enlightenment’s emphasis on education and utility, introduced a new prose style characterized by clarity, directness, naturalness, and necessity. The prose of essays aimed not to evoke emotions in the reader but rather to encourage reflection. Eighteenth-century Spanish essays championed the use of the vernacular language for science and philosophy, challenging the dominance of Latin, which nonetheless remained the official language of universities. Father Benito Jerónimo Feijoo pioneered this genre, which soon found a suitable channel for dissemination in the press. Notable publications include the Diario de los literatos de España (Journal of the Literati of Spain).
Another prominent prose writer of the century was Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos.
José Cadalso
Cadalso, a key figure of the eighteenth century, explored various genres but achieved his highest levels of expression in prose. In 1772, he published Los eruditos a la violeta (The Pseudo-Intellectuals), a satirical critique of false intellectuals. In 1793, he published his Cartas marruecas (Moroccan Letters), a collection of ninety letters in which he shared his thoughts on Spanish society and culture.
Theater
Throughout the eighteenth century, the theater continued to present plays that, with minimal innovation and limited merit, perpetuated the Baroque aesthetic, particularly the works of Calderón de la Barca. Significant developments began to emerge in the second half of the century, although the changes were only embraced by an enlightened minority. The drama of this era was entangled in several controversies. Initially, there was debate about the value of theater itself. The efforts of the enlightened were directed towards establishing a new theater that adhered to the rule of the three unities and served as a school of good manners. The new plays were expected to strive for verisimilitude, presenting universal characters and conflicts from which the audience could derive valuable lessons. However, this type of theater failed to gain widespread public favor. Notable playwrights include Tomás de Iriarte, Jovellanos, Leandro Fernández de Moratín, and Ramón de la Cruz.
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos: Sentimental Comedy
Theatrical novelties of the century were referred to as sentimental comedies. These plays blended elements of tragedy with a happy ending, catering to pre-Romantic tastes. They are considered the immediate predecessors of Romantic dramas. The intellectual Jovellanos was a leading figure in this genre. The merit of these works lies in their incorporation of both scientific and philosophical vocabulary, as well as in the portrayal of lower-class characters. His play El delincuente honrado (The Honorable Delinquent) is considered the most significant work of its kind.
Leandro Fernández de Moratín
Moratín is recognized as the quintessential creator of neoclassical comedy, characterized by simple plots, adherence to the rule of the three unities, and concise, witty dialogue. He was also a skilled creator of characters.
In La comedia nueva (The New Comedy), he exposes the conflict between Baroque theater and the emerging new theater. The rest of his works address the education of the youth of his time. In this play, there is a complete equivalence between real time and stage time.
One of the most intriguing aspects of Moratín’s comedies is his portrayal of young love. Moratín believed that the strict upbringing of young people forced them to repress their genuine thoughts and feelings in the presence of their elders, rendering them incapable of expressing the truth.
El sí de las niñas (The Maidens’ Consent) is considered one of the most representative works of eighteenth-century Spanish literature. Both in its formal characteristics and its content, it can be seen as a representative example of the author’s thought and his era, as well as an exemplary model of the type of play favored by enlightened playwrights of the eighteenth century.
The play narrates the attempts of Don Diego (59 years old) to marry Doña Francisca. Doña Irene, Paquita’s mother, not only consents but also, driven by economic interests, arranges the marriage. However, Doña Paquita is in love with Don Diego’s nephew, Don Carlos, who reciprocates her feelings. The situation is resolved in favor of the young couple, who, with the consent of their elders, are able to publicly declare their love.
The play adheres to the rule of the three unities:
- Unity of action
- Unity of place
- Unity of time
The themes relate to the political climate of the time, specifically the prevailing customs surrounding marriage and the Pragmatic Sanction of March 23, 1776, issued by King Charles III, which mandated that children under 25 years of age respect their parents’ decisions regarding their marriage.