18th Century Transformations: Economy, Society, and Politics

Posted on Nov 26, 2024 in Geography

Item 2. Changes in the Old Regime

The Old Regime began in the late 15th century and ended in the late 18th century. Its key features included:

  • Demographics: High birth and death rates resulted in low natural population increase.
  • Economy: Traditional agriculture with low productivity dominated, while guilds controlled crafts. Domestic trade was limited, but international trade expanded due to the discovery and colonization of America.
  • Society: Society was divided into privileged classes (nobility and clergy) and unprivileged classes (bourgeoisie, peasants, and workers).
  • Politics: Absolute monarchy prevailed, with the king holding unlimited power and authority.
  • Culture: The rise of anthropocentrism fostered critical thinking, research, and experimentation.

Changes during the second half of the 18th century, driven by the Enlightenment, transformed the Old Regime across economic, social, ideological, and political spheres.

Economic Changes

Agriculture remained dominant, with cereals as the most widespread crop. Declining production in some areas led to increased fallowing, crop rotation, and the adoption of corn and potatoes. These improvements spurred population growth. Craft production, though still dominated by guilds, became less significant compared to manufacturing. Internal trade improved with better river and land routes, while maritime transport boosted foreign trade.

Population and Social Changes

The 18th century saw significant European population growth, thanks to improved nutrition, hygiene, and medicine. The estate system persisted, but with notable shifts:

  • The nobility’s political influence declined.
  • Monarchs and intellectuals pressured the clergy towards secularization.
  • Within the Third Estate, the bourgeoisie continued its upward trajectory. The gentry prospered, while officials formed the petty bourgeoisie. Artisans and farmers faced worsening poverty.

England: Revolutions and Parliamentarism (1625-1689)

  • 1625-1649: Reign of Charles I, who sought to rule without Parliament.
  • 1642-1649: First English Revolution, Civil War, and execution of Charles I.
  • 1649-1660: Republic under Oliver Cromwell.
  • 1660-1688: Restoration of the monarchy (Charles II and James II).
  • 1688-1689: Second English Revolution (Glorious Revolution).
  • 1689: Declaration of Rights, establishing a parliamentary monarchy under William and Mary. Law superseded the king’s authority. Two parties emerged: Tories (defending royal rights) and Whigs (supporting parliamentary supremacy).

Parliament: Assembly representing the estates. In England, it comprised the House of Lords (aristocracy) and the House of Commons (lower nobility and bourgeoisie).

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, an 18th-century intellectual movement across Europe and America, emphasized anthropocentrism, reason, progress, and the right to happiness. Nature was seen as the source of goodness. Key Enlightenment ideas included:

  • Replacing the unequal estate system with an egalitarian society.
  • Promoting public participation in government.
  • Questioning traditional religious beliefs in favor of natural religion or deism.
  • Advocating physiocracy, an economic system emphasizing agriculture as the primary source of wealth and free markets.
  • Democratizing culture through education.

Enlightened Despotism

18th-century absolute monarchs embraced enlightened despotism, implementing reforms for the supposed happiness of the people, based on the principle of “everything for the people, but without the people.” These reforms included:

  • Political: Centralized administration with uniform laws.
  • Social: Abolition of serfdom and curtailment of noble privileges.
  • Economic: Introduction of new crops and expansion of irrigation.
  • Cultural: Establishment of academies and promotion of religious tolerance, while limiting clerical power.

Prominent enlightened despots included Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, Charles III of Spain, and Joseph II of Austria.

International Relations: The European Balance of Power

The 18th century witnessed a balance of power among European powers, notably Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria. Key conflicts included:

  • The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), with France opposing Austria and Prussia. The resulting peace treaty granted Prussian territories to Austria.
  • The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), fought between Britain and France over colonial trade. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 marked France’s decline and Britain’s expansion, with France ceding Canada and Indian territories.

The Bourbons in Spain

Change of Dynasty

The death of Charles II without an heir triggered the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), with Bourbon and Habsburg contenders for the Spanish throne. This conflict involved international and civil wars, ending with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Philip of Anjou became Philip V of Spain. Britain gained Gibraltar, Minorca, and American colonial concessions, while Austria received the Spanish Netherlands and Italian territories (except Sicily, which went to Savoy).

The Enlightenment in Spain

Spanish Enlightenment figures, mainly from the gentry and bourgeoisie, sought to reconcile reason with Christian tradition. They attributed Spain’s decline to economic backwardness and outdated social structures, advocating for educational reform. These ideas faced resistance from those reluctant to change, including much of the nobility and clergy, as well as the Inquisition.

Enlightened Despotism in Spain

Foreign Policy: Spain allied with France against Britain, participating in the War of the Austrian Succession, the Seven Years’ War, and the American Revolutionary War.

Domestic Policy: Reforms focused on policy and administration. The Nueva Planta decrees abolished Aragon’s laws and privileges, established municipalities with mayors, and created courts. A concordat with the Holy See governed church-state relations. The Jesuits were expelled (1767), and the Inquisition’s power was limited.

Economy and Finance: Agricultural improvements included irrigation works, repopulation of Sierra Morena, and abolition of Mesta privileges. Internal customs were abolished, local industry was protected, and manufacturing was promoted. Tax collection was streamlined, and a cadastre was implemented.

Culture: Institutions such as medical and engineering colleges, botanical gardens, schools, and economic societies were established.

Society: The nobility retained its privileges. Abolishing legal discrimination against workers was a key concern. The clergy maintained its power and influence. Changes primarily benefited the bourgeoisie, who gained wealth and political power.

Political Problems

The Bourbons faced challenges, including the Esquilache Riots during Charles III’s reign, sparked by clothing regulations and high food prices. Supporting the American colonies’ rebellion led to independence movements in Spanish America.

Spanish America in the 18th Century

The 18th century was a prosperous era for the Spanish Empire. Creoles (American-born Spaniards) faced discrimination. Bourbon reforms aimed to improve control over American territories. Key measures included:

  • Creation of the Viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata.
  • Establishment of chartered companies with trade monopolies, later replaced by free trade under Charles III.
  • Expansion of missionary work, particularly by Jesuits.
  • Promotion of culture through universities, printing, and scientific expeditions.

Rococo Art

Originating in France around 1715, Rococo flourished in Germany, Austria, Italy, and, to a lesser extent, Spain. It featured:

  • Architecture: Abundant decoration, especially in interiors, exemplified by German and Austrian palaces and Spanish royal residences.
  • Painting: Pleasant themes in soft colors, pastels, and watercolors.
  • Sculpture: Religious and mythological themes with grace and finesse, notably by Francisco Salzillo.