1931 Spanish Elections: Republic, Reforms, and Political Polarization
1931 Elections: Constituent Period (Elections, Constitution, and Political Forces). The April 1931 elections, won by Republican forces, led King Alfonso XIII to abdicate, and April 14, 1931, was proclaimed a republic. The new system was enthusiastically welcomed by the popular and middle classes, while elites feared it. First municipal elections were held with universal male suffrage. Republican and socialist parties, members of the Pact of San Sebastián, emerged victorious. The new provisional government convened a Constituent Assembly. Subsequent general elections confirmed the Republican-Socialist victory. The 1931 Constitution, drafted under Niceto Alcalá Zamora, was ideologically progressive. The state was defined as ‘integral’ but allowed for self-government. Legislative power resided exclusively in the unicameral Courts. Executive power belonged to the government (Council of Ministers, headed by the president). Judicial power was entrusted to independent judges. The Constitution also included extensive rights and freedoms: equality before the law, rights to education and employment, women’s suffrage, a secular state, and recognition of civil marriage and divorce. This led to strong disagreements between left and right, particularly regarding religious and autonomy issues. Manuel Azaña became prime minister, and Alcalá Zamora, president of the Republic. Political forces were divided into left and right-wing parties. Generally, the left favored a secular state, land reform, labor and social rights, and autonomy. The right defended the established state, traditional land ownership, and a unitary state. Left-wing parties included the Republican Left (Azaña’s Action and the Radical-Socialist Party). Right-wing parties included the Radical Party and the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA). Autonomist parties included the left-wing Esquerra Republicana and the right-wing Regionalist League. Leftist workers’ parties included the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE), the General Union of Workers (UGT), the National Confederation of Labor (CNT), the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI), and the Communist Party. Right-wing parties opposed to the Republic included Spanish Renewal, the Traditionalist Communion, the JONS (National Syndicalist Offensive Boards), and the Spanish Falange.
The Left Biennium (1931-1933): Reforms (Religion, Military, Agriculture, Centralization, Education, and Labor) and Problems. Manuel Azaña’s government implemented reforms to modernize and democratize Spanish society. In the religious sphere, the Republic aimed for secularization, as embodied in the 1931 Constitution. Religious orders involved in teaching were banned, the Society of Jesus was dissolved and its assets nationalized. An anti-clerical movement emerged, leading to the burning of buildings and monasteries. Military reforms reduced the number of soldiers and officers. Officers were required to pledge allegiance to the Republic; those who refused could retire with full salary. The Assault Guards, a public order force, were created. Africans viewed these reforms as attacks on military tradition. Land reform aimed to eliminate landlordism and improve laborers’ living standards. The Agrarian Reform Act, while not collectivizing land, aimed at its modernization. It allowed for the expropriation of large estates (without compensation for the largest, with compensation for others). Implementation was overseen by the Agrarian Reform Institute (ARI), but faced significant challenges. Large landowners and farmers opposed the reforms, leading to more revolutionary stances. The state’s configuration allowed regions with nationalist sentiments to pursue self-organization. Catalonia passed a Statute of Autonomy, and the Basque Country initiated the Statute of Estella. Francesc Macià became president of the Generalitat, and Antonio Aguirre the first Lendakari. Educational reform promoted secular, liberal education for all. 10,000 schools were established, and Pedagogical Missions improved the cultural level of the most humble. Labor reforms, led by Largo Caballero, improved working conditions, establishing a 40-hour work week, raising wages, and creating social security. The Left Biennium coincided with the global economic depression, worsening Spain’s internal economic problems. Emigration to America halted, unemployment rose, and government-decreed wage increases reduced corporate profits and private investment. Widespread discontent with the slow pace of reforms peaked in 1933, leading to increased strikes, insurrections, and land occupations (e.g., the anarchist peasant uprising in Andalusia, Casas Viejas). The government faced significant challenges. The center-right Radical Party (under Lerroux) and CEDA (under Gil Robles) gained support. Spanish Renewal (Calvo Sotelo), JONS, and the Falange intensified agitation. General Sanjurjo’s August 1932 coup attempt failed.
The Conservative Biennium (1933-1935). The Republican-Socialist coalition faltered. Azaña and Zamora resigned, and elections were called for November. The left was disorganized, while the right, winning the election, was united. This began the Conservative or Black Biennium. Alcalá Zamora, president of the Republic, entrusted government formation to the Radical Party, excluding the CEDA, which had won significant votes.