19th & 20th Century Transformations: Nations, Empires, and Art
19th & 20th Century Transformations
Concepts of the Nation
- Cultural Concept (German Romantics): A nation is a living entity shaped by shared culture, language, and history, possessing the right to sovereignty.
- Political Concept (French Theorists): A nation is formed by citizens’ voluntary decisions, united by laws, rights, and duties.
Nationalizing and Nationalist Movements
Two key movements emerged: nationalizing movements, driven by states, and nationalist movements seeking separation.
Nationalizing Policies
States fostered patriotism through symbols like anthems and flags, promoting a common language and organizing competitions. This often led to inter-community conflicts.
Dispersing Nationalist Movements
Resistance to nationalizing policies led to rebellions. Belgium separated from the Netherlands in 1830. The multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian and Turkish Empires faced more complex situations. The Austro-Hungarian Empire persisted, while the Turkish Empire gradually fragmented, with Greece, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Albania gaining independence. Ireland’s struggle for independence from the UK culminated in 1922.
Unifying Movements
Italy and Germany, previously divided into separate states, unified. Italian unification, led by Piedmont, was achieved in 1861, fueled by a sense of national identity. German unification, driven by Prussia and Bismarck’s military campaigns, concluded in 1871 with the formation of the German Empire.
United States: Westward Expansion and Civil War
Westward Expansion
Westward expansion provided land and fostered a sense of American nationhood. Three main regions emerged:
- The Northeast: Marked by significant industrial development.
- The South: Focused on tobacco and cotton farming.
- The West: Dominated by independent farmers.
The Civil War
The issue of slavery, left to individual states, divided the nation. Northern states had abolished slavery, while the South relied on it for its agricultural economy. Abraham Lincoln’s election, with his anti-slavery stance, triggered the secession of eleven Southern states. The ensuing Civil War, lasting four years and resulting in half a million deaths, marked the first use of modern weaponry and ended with a Northern victory.
Reconstruction and Political Parties
The post-war Reconstruction era brought economic prosperity. Slavery was abolished, but the withdrawal of the U.S. Army led to the denial of rights for Black Americans in the South. The Democratic and Republican parties, still prominent today, emerged during this period.
Liberalism in Europe
Democracy in Europe progressed slowly, with the adoption of male suffrage, freedom of expression, and political parties. Socialist parties gained parliamentary representation as workers gained voting rights, utilizing modern campaigning techniques. However, true democracy remained elusive due to:
- Women’s Suffrage: Women lacked basic rights, including voting, leading to the rise of the suffragist movement.
- Electoral Manipulation: Widespread fraud and manipulation undermined democratic processes.
The early 20th century saw the introduction of unemployment benefits and pensions. In Russia, the Tsar held absolute power. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, initially under imperial control, moved towards liberal reforms in 1906, recognizing universal male suffrage.
Imperialism
Imperialism, the domination of one country by another, saw Britain and France establish vast colonial empires. Between 1800 and 1914, European and American control of global land increased from 35% to 84%, driven by technological and military advancements.
Economic Factors
Colonies provided markets for manufactured goods and sources of raw materials at low prices.
Political Factors
Expansion enhanced national prestige and pride. Strategic territories were targeted, such as Britain’s acquisition of coastal areas to secure routes to India.
Demographic Factors
Population growth in the West led governments to encourage emigration to colonies to alleviate unemployment.
Ideological Factors
Racist attitudes of white superiority and a mission to “civilize” fueled colonization, alongside scientific curiosity and expeditions to unexplored regions.
The Great Empires
The British Empire, the largest of the 19th century, spanned 33 million km² and 450 million inhabitants, with colonies on every continent and control of key maritime routes. India was its most important colony.
The French Empire, the second largest, covered 10 million km² with 48 million inhabitants, primarily in North Africa and Indochina.
Smaller empires included Belgium, Germany, Italy, and Russia. Competition between Britain and France for territory created tensions that nearly escalated to war.
Colonial Administration
- Dominions: Regions with significant white populations had internal self-government but remained under the metropolis’s external control.
- Exploitation Colonies: Directly administered by the metropolis.
- Protectorates: The metropolis controlled foreign policy and resource exploitation, while natives managed internal security.
- Concessions: Independent countries granted economic control to the metropolis.
Consequences of Imperialism
Imperialism led to arbitrary borders disregarding ethnic differences, land appropriation for plantations, exploitation of resources and native labor, hindered industrialization in colonies, and marginalized indigenous populations.
Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture
Photography’s invention challenged artists, leading to Post-Impressionism (Monet, Pissarro). The early 20th century saw three major art movements:
- Expressionism (Munch): Depicted fear, anguish, and violence.
- Fauvism (Matisse): Characterized by vibrant colors and simple forms.
- Cubism (Picasso): Distorted reality through fragmented figures.
New materials like glass, steel, and reinforced concrete revolutionized architecture, enabling structures like the Eiffel Tower. Skyscrapers emerged with the invention of the electric elevator. Modernism, emphasizing aesthetics in buildings and furniture, emerged with exponents like Gaudí.
Finally, film and the gramophone industrialized music, with record stores becoming commonplace in major cities by 1900.