19th Century Colonial Imperialism: Causes, Expansion, and Administration
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is the expansion of a state beyond its borders to dominate other areas, which are called colonies. These colonies are subjected to and exploited by a power, which is called the metropolis. Nineteenth-century colonial imperialism identified two distinct parts: the metropolis and its colonies, which were at its service. This imperialist model established political dependence by the colonies, used to optimize the use of natural and human resources existing in the controlled territories.
Causes of Imperialism
Economic Causes:
- Generated new needs for the functioning of the capitalist model.
- Market research and need for raw materials and energy sources.
Social Causes:
- European demographic expansion caused the emigration of millions of people to overseas territories in search of new economic opportunities.
Political Causes:
- Growing rivalry between different powers.
- Search for national prestige and territorial rivalry between powers.
Ideological Causes:
- Emphasis on nationalism and belief in the superiority of the white race, which justified imperialism as a civilizing mission.
- Its justification came from the theory of progress and Social Darwinism.
Types of Colonial Administration
According to their organization, several types can be distinguished:
- Protectorate: The indigenous government was respected by the metropolis, which dealt with domestic politics, while the power controlled foreign policy and the army.
- Colonies: Areas dominated by a foreign power imposing its administration. These could be of two types: colonies of exploitation and settlement colonies.
- Concessions: Established the settlement of foreign populations to conduct business and provide trade.
- Mandates: A product of the First World War, the colonies of losing powers were given to the winners on a temporary basis.
The Expansion in Asia
Central Asia
Russia advanced from Siberia to the south and took the domain of the southern steppes, and east, where it rivaled with other powers for control of northern China. To avoid the Russian threat, the British occupied the northwest of India, and Afghanistan remained a buffer state between the two powers.
Southeast Asia
Britain occupied Burma and the Malay Peninsula. France occupied Indochina, and Siam remained an independent kingdom and a buffer state between the two powers. Holland gained control of much of the current Indonesia.
East Asia
The Opium Wars allowed European penetration, especially the British, who took control of Hong Kong, and the Russians, who took Vladivostok and Sakhalin. This generated different problems: in China, the Boxer Rebellion took place; the Russian presence caused rivalry with Japan, which had taken Formosa after the Chinese-Japanese War and faced the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War.
Expansion in the Pacific
In the Pacific, Western colonization did not raise too many problems. Australia and New Zealand had become British settler colonies. The emergence of the United States and Germany as new powers led to the establishment of various agreements to define the zones of occupation:
- New Guinea was divided between the Netherlands, British, and Germans.
- A new Anglo-German agreement defined their respective areas of influence in the Pacific Islander.
- After its victory over Spain, the United States gained the domain of the Philippine Islands.
The Scramble for Africa
Africa was a new space for the European powers as a source of raw materials and markets to distribute surplus production. The opening of the Suez Canal and the South African gold rush spurred imperialist desires. France began the occupation of Africa by controlling Algeria and Tunisia. In collaboration with Great Britain, it controlled Egypt, which eventually came under British control. However, the decisive impulse was given by Leopold II of Belgium, who gained control of much of central Africa, resulting in numerous disputes with other powers.
To reduce the rivalry, the Berlin Conference was convened, which was the starting point of the sharing of the African continent. They accepted the claims of Germany, and colonial slavery was abolished. The Berlin Conference led to the occupation of large tracts of territory in Africa:
- West Africa: France gained control of a large area.
- East Africa: Great Britain controlled a continuous strip of territory from north to south, from Egypt and the Nile Valley to Lake Victoria.
- South Africa: British expansion was oriented to the north, trying to connect these domains with those it already had.
The occupation of the African territory provoked disputes between the colonial powers. Two independent states remained: Ethiopia and Liberia, the latter consisting of former black slaves from the United States.