19th Century Europe and America: Revolutions, Industrialization, and Nationalism
Liberalism, Nationalism, and Democracy
The revolutions of the 19th century were reactions to the restoration of the ancien régime and the return of absolutism. They were inspired by liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.
- Liberalism: Liberalism emphasized individual freedoms and generally represented the interests of the bourgeoisie.
- Nationalism: Nationalism advocated the right of people who defined themselves as nations to establish their own independent states.
- Democracy: Democratic movements expressed the demands of the middle and working classes, as well as opposition to the inequalities produced by industrial capitalism.
The Age of Revolution
In the 1820s, the following revolutions took place:
- Portugal and Spain: Liberal revolutions that aimed to establish constitutional monarchies.
- Greece: Won its independence from the Ottoman Empire through a liberal and nationalist revolution.
In the 1830s, new revolutions broke out:
- France: A liberal revolution established a constitutional monarchy.
- Belgium: A nationalist revolution gained independence from the Netherlands.
America During the 19th Century
Westward Expansion
During the 19th century, the population of the United States increased rapidly due to immigration from Europe. This population increase encouraged the United States to expand westward, ultimately reaching North America’s Pacific coast.
The American Civil War
The Northern states were hostile towards slavery, which existed in the Southern states. The Southern states felt threatened by this, and this difference of ideas caused the American Civil War.
The Birth of the Modern World
- Europe experienced a period of tense international relations due to rivalries between European countries, particularly Germany and France.
- Spain became a second-class power after it lost its remaining colonies in 1898 (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines).
- The industrialized countries of Europe started producing manufactured goods in enormous quantities. At the same time, they began colonizing countries and regions that had a lot of raw materials.
- The rise of a consumer society resulted in greater social inequalities.
- New styles like modernism and impressionism emerged.
Political Tension in Europe
The Bismarckian System
The German chancellor established a system of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy. France wanted to recover Alsace-Lorraine, which it had lost to Germany.
The Policies of Wilhelm II
Wilhelm II abandoned Bismarck’s system of alliances.
The Bourbon Restoration in Spain
- The First Spanish Republic ended in 1874 with a military uprising and the proclamation of Alfonso XII as king of Spain. Spain became a parliamentary monarchy.
- The conservative constitution of 1876 established limited male suffrage.
- There were only two official political parties, the Liberals and the Conservatives, who alternated in power by manipulating election results.
- The king shared legislative power with the Cortes.
- The last Carlist War, which had broken out in 1872, ended in 1876 with the victory of Alfonso XII and his forces.
- Unofficial political groups, such as the Republicans, opposed the government because they felt excluded from the political system.
- Regionalist movements developed in Andalusia, Catalonia, Galicia, and the Basque Country.
Second Industrial Revolution
Energy
New sources of energy were discovered that supplemented and replaced coal and gas.
- Electricity: In 1867, Bergès designed a hydroelectric generator to produce electricity for factories.
- Oil: New processes were discovered to refine oil.
Technology
The Bessemer converter made it cheaper to produce steel.
The Consequences of Finance Capitalism
- Consumerism: A new culture of consumerism developed as people demanded more manufactured goods.
- Economic Instability: In periods of economic crisis, there was less demand for goods. This reduced business profits.
- International Trade: There were improvements to transport systems, including new roads and railways.
- Trade Imbalances: Industrialized countries bought raw materials in less developed countries and colonies at low prices and used them to make manufactured goods.
- Increased Industrial Productivity: Factories began to use the assembly-line system of production. This improved productivity and provided more of the new manufactured goods that consumers demanded.