19th Century Europe and Spain: A Historical Overview

Posted on Oct 23, 2024 in History

Modern European Historiography

The French Revolution of 1789 is considered by many historians to be the defining event of modern European history. However, other countries have different perspectives on the collapse of the Old Regime. For example, Spanish historians focus on the War of Independence (1808), while Central European historians emphasize the 1848 Revolutions. Other states have unique historical narratives linked to their specific experiences.

Liberalism

Liberalism postulates:

• Personal freedom: Liberalism opposes censorship and advocates for freedom of opinion, expression, conscience, the press, and religion.
• Individual rights: These include the rights to life, private property, liberty, and other fundamental rights.
• Legal equality: All individuals are equal before the law, eliminating privileges of the aristocracy and clergy.
• National sovereignty: Political power resides in the population, represented in Parliament.
• Power distribution: Power should be divided to prevent abuse by any single person or institution.
• Citizen participation: Citizens have the right to participate in politics through suffrage and electing members of Parliament.
• Economic freedom: Liberalism opposes state intervention in the economy, advocating against protectionist policies that favor privileged companies.
• Separation of Church and State: The Church should not participate in public affairs.

American Revolution

European presence in North America began in the late 16th century with the founding of St. Augustine (Florida). In the following centuries, colonists arrived from France, Holland, and primarily, the United Kingdom.

• 1608: The French founded Quebec and explored the interior, including the upper Mississippi Valley.
• The Dutch established New Holland, which later became New York. They founded New Amsterdam (now New York City) in 1623.
• 1607: The British established Jamestown, with significant colonization beginning around 1620 in the Virginia area. Thirteen colonies were established along the North American coast, south of the Great Lakes.

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), a conflict between Britain and France for colonial dominance, significantly impacted the development of the Americas. The Treaty of Paris (1763) marked the end of the war, with France losing its North American possessions. The war’s high economic cost led Britain to impose new taxes on the colonies, which had benefited from the conflict. The colonists protested these measures, leading to growing tensions with Britain.

In response to British policies, the First Continental Congress convened in September 1774, initiating a boycott of British goods. Following further unrest and armed conflicts, the Second Continental Congress established the Continental Army, led by George Washington. On July 4, 1776, representatives of the colonies gathered in Philadelphia and approved the Declaration of Independence.

In 1781, the colonies formed a confederation to coordinate their military strategy and central government. The Continental Army received support from France, Spain, and the Netherlands. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1783, recognized the independence of the United States. Four years later, a constitution was adopted, embodying the principles of liberalism and establishing an executive branch headed by a president.

French Revolution

Congress of Vienna and the Restoration

The Napoleonic Wars spread revolutionary ideas across Europe, threatening the established order of absolute monarchies. After Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious powers convened the Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe and establish new political boundaries. The Congress also aimed to restore the monarchies overthrown by Napoleon and ensure their stability. To achieve this, they created the Holy Alliance, whose primary purpose was to intervene militarily in any country where revolutionary movements threatened the absolute power of monarchs.

However, many European nations resisted the restoration of absolutism and embraced liberal and nationalist ideals. The period following the Congress of Vienna witnessed a clash between these opposing forces, leading to several revolutionary waves in 1820, 1830, and 1848. These uprisings, often linked to the defense of national and liberal principles, challenged the established order across Europe.

International Workers Association (IWA)

The IWA advocated for:

• Legislation beneficial to workers, such as the 8-hour workday and regulations for women and children’s labor.
• Strikes as the most effective weapon in the workers’ struggle.
• Worker participation in political life, access to power, and liberation from capitalist oppression. This goal led to the formation of workers’ political parties.

Spain in the 19th Century

Ferdinand VII (1814-1833): The Return of the Old Regime

Following the War of Independence (1814), Ferdinand VII returned to the Spanish throne. His reign (1814-1833) can be divided into three phases:

1. Reinstatement of Absolutism (1814-1820): Although initially swearing to uphold the Constitution of Cádiz, Ferdinand VII, with the support of the nobility, clergy, and military, revoked the Constitution and restored absolutism, marking the return of the old regime.
2. Liberal Triennium (1820-1823): The 1820 uprising led by Lieutenant Colonel Rafael del Riego (inspired by liberal ideas) in Cabezas de San Juan (Seville) forced Ferdinand VII to reinstate the 1812 Constitution. However, in 1823, with the support of the Holy Alliance, a French army intervened, restoring Ferdinand VII to absolute power.
3. Ominous Decade (1823-1833): The reinstatement of absolutism led to a period of repression against liberal ideas and individuals. Before his death, Ferdinand VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction, revoking the Salic Law (which had prevented female succession to the throne since 1713).

Isabella II’s Reign (1833-1868)

1. Regency (1833-1843): During Isabella II’s minority, Maria Christina of Bourbon and Baldomero Espartero served as regents. The government, supported by progressive liberals, implemented significant reforms, including the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal. This involved the seizure and sale of church lands, generating revenue for the state.
2. Moderate Decade (1844-1856): With Isabella II declared of age, moderate liberals dominated the government. The 1845 Constitution, introduced under Ramón María Narváez, increased royal power. Important reforms included the Moyano Law of Education and the Tax Reform of Alejandro Mon, establishing direct and indirect taxes. Infrastructure development, including canals, roads, and railways, experienced significant growth.
3. Progressive Biennium (1854-1856): A progressive liberal coalition government, led by Espartero and Leopoldo O’Donnell, came to power. The Madoz Disentailment, which involved the confiscation and sale of civil property (including communal lands), aimed to redistribute land to farmers. Conflicts between Espartero and O’Donnell led to Espartero’s resignation.
4. Crisis of Moderate Liberalism (1856-1868): Narváez and O’Donnell led governments characterized by an interventionist foreign policy, including unsuccessful expeditions to Indochina and Mexico and the war in Morocco. Growing discontent with the Queen and the government’s authoritarianism contributed to the regime’s decline. The Glorious Revolution of 1868, supported by various political forces, ended Isabella II’s reign.

Revolutionary Sexennium (1868-1874)

This period was marked by numerous changes in government. Following Isabella II’s overthrow, a provisional government was formed, led by Francisco Serrano, who sought a new monarch. Amadeo of Savoy was offered the throne but his brief reign (1871-1873) was characterized by instability. When Amadeo abdicated, the National Assembly proclaimed the First Spanish Republic. The Republic faced numerous challenges, including defining its governing model, ongoing conflicts in Cuba and the Carlist Wars, and the rise of cantonalist uprisings, which reflected a radical interpretation of federalism.

Provincial Institutions in the Basque Country

The Basque provinces (Álava, Biscay, Gipuzkoa, and Navarre) maintained their traditional political institutions, known as the fueros. These institutions included regional assemblies (Juntas Generales) and courts. The Crown’s authority was represented by the Diputado General in Álava, Biscay, and Gipuzkoa and the Viceroy in Navarre.

Carlist Wars

The Carlist Wars were two civil wars (1833-1839 and 1872-1876) fought between supporters of the Carlist pretenders to the Spanish throne (who advocated for traditionalist and absolutist principles) and the supporters of the reigning monarchs (Isabella II and later Alfonso XII), who represented liberal and constitutional ideals.

Emancipation of the American Colonies

Several factors contributed to the independence of Spain’s American colonies:

External factors:

• The American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution inspired independence movements in the Spanish colonies.
• Enlightenment ideals promoted emancipation and self-determination.
• The Spanish War of Independence weakened Spain’s military presence in America.
• Support from Great Britain, which sought to expand its trade in the Americas.

Internal factors:

• Creoles, American-born descendants of Spaniards, demanded greater participation in colonial administration and resented the dominance of Spanish-born officials.
• Spain’s trade monopolies hindered economic development in the colonies, preventing free trade.
• Corruption and self-enrichment were widespread among colonial officials.

Constitution of 1812

The reign of Charles IV in Spain coincided with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon’s attempt to install his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne triggered the War of Independence (1808-1814). During this period, while many Spaniards fought for independence, intellectuals, professionals, and the bourgeoisie embraced revolutionary ideas. Three main groups emerged:

1. Afrancesados (Frenchified): Those who favored the French social model.
2. Jovellanistas: Followers of the Enlightenment ideas of Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos.
3. Liberals: Advocates for profound social and political change.

Representatives of these groups, particularly the liberals, gathered in Cádiz and drafted the Constitution of 1812, which was approved on March 19, 1812. This constitution established a constitutional monarchy, guaranteed individual rights, and introduced significant reforms.