19th Century Europe: From Napoleon to Unification
Napoleon: Consul and Emperor
In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Consul of France, consolidating the bourgeois revolution and preventing the return of absolutism. He permitted the return of exiles and formed a concordat with the Church to maintain religious peace. He appointed prefects to govern the provinces and enacted the Civil Code, improving agriculture and trade. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor.
The Napoleonic Conquests
One of Napoleon’s motivations for conquest was the prestige of European absolutist kings. He conquered much of Europe, and by 1811, his empire was at its peak, spanning from Germany to Spain, excluding Britain. He installed family members or military officers on conquered thrones, promoting economic progress, religious freedom, and private property.
The Fall of Napoleon
Napoleon’s conquests spread revolutionary ideals across Europe. However, patriotic uprisings against French presence arose in conquered states. The Spanish uprising, triggered by the installation of Joseph Bonaparte as king in 1808, marked the decline of Napoleon’s empire. Defeated in Russia and Spain, Napoleon abdicated in 1814. In 1815, he was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena.
The Restoration Era in Europe
Following Napoleon’s defeat, victorious states convened at the Congress of Vienna, under the guidance of Chancellor Metternich, to restore absolutism. The European map was redrawn, with France returning to its 1792 borders and other territories redistributed among the victors (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and the United Kingdom). The Congress’s decisions were reinforced by the Holy Alliance, a mutual assistance treaty among European monarchs. To maintain order, these monarchs agreed to hold periodic conferences. However, the revolutionary ideals of liberalism and nationalism emerged as opposing forces.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a political system based on individual liberty. The state’s role is to guarantee individual rights and freedoms. Individuals are citizens with sovereignty. Liberalism advocates for decisions to emanate from an elected assembly (parliament) that creates laws. It champions a constitution to ensure the division of powers and prevent tyranny. The state should not intervene in economic affairs.
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology supporting the right of peoples to self-determination. A nation is a group of individuals sharing cultural ties and desiring to live together. Nationalism spread across 19th-century Europe in opposition to absolutist states. This led to independence movements within the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, as well as the unification of Italy and Germany.
The Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848
The 1820 Revolutions
A series of uprisings led by liberal military officers aimed to overthrow absolutism but were suppressed by the Holy Alliance’s armies. However, in Greece, a strong patriotic movement defeated the Ottoman Empire, leading to Greek independence in 1822.
The 1830 Revolutions
This revolutionary wave in central and western Europe replaced absolutism with constitutional monarchies, granting power to the bourgeoisie. This conservative liberalism was based on limited suffrage. Starting in France with the overthrow of Charles X and the installation of Louis Philippe of Orleans, the revolution spread to Belgium, which gained independence from the Netherlands. Poland’s revolt against Russia was suppressed. Britain expanded political rights, and liberalism emerged in Spain.
The Spring of the People (1848)
In western Europe, this revolution marked a shift towards democratic ideals: universal suffrage, social equality, and political empowerment. Beginning in France, it ended the reign of Louis Philippe and established the Second Republic. In eastern Europe, the fight was against Austrian absolutism. The liberal revolt forced the resignation of Chancellor Metternich. Though most uprisings were quelled, the ideals persisted throughout the 19th century.
Unification of Italy and Germany
In the latter half of the 19th century, Italy and Germany underwent unification processes led by their most powerful states (Piedmont in Italy, Prussia in Germany) after years of armed conflict.
Italy
Italy was divided into six states, with the Pope ruling the Papal States and Austria controlling Lombardy and Veneto. Piedmont, led by Prime Minister Cavour, initiated war with Austria and regained Lombardy. Garibaldi defeated rulers in central and southern Italy. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont, was crowned King of Italy. Austria returned Veneto in 1866, and the Papal States were annexed in 1870.
Germany
Germany, divided into 36 states, faced rivalry between Prussia and Austria. Prussia, under Otto von Bismarck, waged war against Austria and France, achieving victories that united all German states under the Prussian king. After the victory at Sedan in 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed, with Wilhelm I as Kaiser.
Europe at the End of the 19th Century
By the end of the 19th century, Europe had achieved relative political stability. However, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires faced challenges from peoples seeking independence (Czechs, Poles, Hungarians, Serbs, Croats, and Bulgarians). In western Europe, liberalism focused on advancing democracy and recognizing social rights.