19th Century Europe: Industrialization, Imperialism, and Philosophy
Historical Context
a) The Era of Revolutions
The nineteenth century is considered the era of revolutions in Europe, encompassing demographic shifts, industrial advancements (steel, communications, transport), and ideological changes (liberal, nationalist, and socialist revolutions). The pursuit of power and wealth fueled European imperialism worldwide. Scientific progress and philosophical theories emerged alongside the decline of traditional values.
b) Industrialization
Industrialization brought mechanization and technological advancements. Science and economy became intertwined, with scientific and technical discoveries aimed at increasing production. Specialized industries and production expanded to national and international markets. The demographic revolution, driven by medical advances and improved food supplies, led to a mass exodus from rural areas to cities, resulting in poor living conditions for workers in mines and factories, and ultimately, urbanization. This period also saw the rise of proletarian awareness and the growing economic power of the bourgeoisie, along with the development of the stock market and banking.
c) The Age of Imperialism
The major industrial powers of this era were Britain, France, Germany, and the USA. Imperialism was driven by several factors:
- Demographic factors: Many Europeans emigrated in search of better opportunities, moving to America, Australia, Africa, or Siberia.
- Economic factors: Saturated domestic markets led to the search for new markets in colonies, which also provided raw materials and cheap labor.
- Political factors: Imperialism satisfied the desire for power and aligned with nationalist sentiments (through language and cultural imposition).
- Ideological factors: Imperialism was justified by the supposed supremacy of the white race. Colonial policies often treated natives as inferiors, sometimes establishing slavery or imposing foreign cultures and religions.
d) Social Movements
Several significant social movements emerged during this period:
- Democracy movement: An extension of liberalism, advocating for liberty, equality, and universal male suffrage.
- Suffrage movement: Women’s movement demanding the right to vote.
- Socialism and Anarchism: The proletariat formed legalized political parties and labor unions. Marxism provided a revolutionary political framework, aiming to create an international labor organization.
- Nationalism: The exaltation of national values and the spirit of the people. While it promoted national languages, it was also used to justify imperialism.
- Traditionalism (Carlism): Rejected societal evolution, supporting the Church and absolute monarchy, emphasizing authority, order, and morality.
Philosophical Context
a) 19th Century Philosophical Trends
Two dominant cultural trends in the 19th century were Romanticism and Positivism.
Romanticism
Romanticism championed tradition and opposed unchecked progress. It emphasized concrete experience over universal reason, venerating the whole (transcendent realities and the absolute spirit). This was reflected in:
- The subordination of ethics to exemplary figures, influencing political conservatism.
- The rejection of rules in art and morality, valuing genius and freedom of feeling.
- The elevation of feelings, intuition, and imagination as sources of knowledge, challenging the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason.
- Placing the individual within their specific social and historical context, contributing to nationalism.
- A dynamic view of nature, seeing it as living and evolving.
Political frustrations (based on limited suffrage), nationalism, and social issues (proletarianization) contributed to a sense of pessimism and melancholy in Romanticism, sometimes referred to as the “century of evil.”
Positivism
Positivism asserted that knowledge is acquired through experimental science, rejecting interpretations not based on empirical evidence (e.g., metaphysics). It emphasized the positive sciences as the drivers of human progress, advocating for the extension of the scientific method to all fields. Other philosophical currents of the time included:
- Vitalism: Emphasized the importance of values, feelings, and the psychic, vital, dynamic, and irrational aspects of life, challenging purely rational interpretations.
- Evolution: Living beings evolve through natural selection (survival of the fittest).
- Marxism: A philosophy and revolutionary practice advocating for the proletariat’s struggle against capital to achieve a communist society.