19th Century Europe: Napoleon III and Spanish Political Turmoil
Napoleon III and the Second Empire
Louis Napoleon was elected president of the new republic. In 1851, he organized a coup, and in 1852, he declared himself Emperor Napoleon III, starting the Second Empire. Napoleon attempted to modernize France by encouraging free trade and building new railways and harbors, which reduced unemployment and produced strong economic growth. In the late 1860s, this led to a crisis. In 1870, Prussia provoked a war with France, and with the help of the German states, they defeated France at the Battle of Sedan by capturing Napoleon. France lost the region of Alsace and had to pay 5 billion francs to Germany.
Ferdinand VII and Political Instability in Spain
1814: Ferdinand VII wanted to restore the ancien régime and absolute monarchy. He abolished the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and dissolved the Spanish Parliament, persecuting and imprisoning his political opponents.
1820: General Riego started a liberal rebellion, forcing Ferdinand to accept the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The reforms of the Cadiz Parliament were brought back.
1823: Ferdinand pretended to accept the constitutional monarchy but asked for help from the Holy Alliance. France sent 60,000 men to support Ferdinand (the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis). The following 10 years (the ominous decade) were marked by brutal repression of liberals. In 1830, Ferdinand changed the Spanish law of succession to allow a female to ascend to the throne. Ferdinand died in 1833.
Land Reform
The process of land reform was used by the liberals and bourgeoisie. They nationalized land owned by the municipalities and the church and sold it at the highest prices to increase the number of small farmers and raise money to pay government debts and to win the Carlist War. However, only nobles and the bourgeoisie could afford it. They continued to rent it out and did not modernize farming techniques.
Isabella II and the Carlist Wars
First Carlist War (1CW): 1833-1839, with Maria Christina (MC) as regent.
1840: General Espartero was more progressive than Maria Christina.
Second Carlist War (2CW): 1843: Isabella II reigned at 13 years old. The moderate decade was led by General Narváez, who increased the power of the monarchy and created the Civil Guard.
Progressive Biennium: Progressives, led by Espartero, nationalized and sold the common lands of the municipalities.
Moderates and Liberal Union: Created by O’Donnell. Until 1868, power alternated between Moderates and the Liberal Union.
The Carlist Wars
Isabella’s supporters were liberal and moderate conservatives who believed in the separation of powers and wanted to modernize the economy. The Carlist supporters wanted a traditional society based on the Catholic religion and absolute monarchy. Many people did not want a female monarch and wanted Charles as king, which led to the First Carlist War.
1835: The government started selling church lands to pay for Mendizabal’s disentailment. This helped the government win the war. Carlists were unhappy with the situation in Spain, which led to two further Carlist Wars (1846-49 and 1872-76).
Moderates and Progressives
Both were liberal, opposed absolute monarchy, and supported economic reforms.
- Moderates: Gave more power to the monarch and the central government (Isabella II).
- Progressives: Believed in popular sovereignty.
The Glorious Revolution
1860s: The moderate government grew very unpopular, becoming less liberal and increasingly authoritarian and conservative. Spain had an economic crisis because of the end of the rail boom. The Glorious Revolution was led by General Prim. The Progressive Party, Democratic Party, and Liberal Union signed the Pact of Ostende (1866). They agreed to remove the moderates and Isabella II from power. In September 1866, the navy in Cadiz rebelled, and then at the Battle of Alcolea, Isabella was forced into exile.
The Six Years of Democracy
1869: The government introduced the most liberal Spanish constitution, including the principle of popular sovereignty and male universal suffrage for those over 25 years old. It established a constitutional monarchy with separation of powers and a number of freedoms, including freedom of religion and freedom of the press. The Italian royal family had a reputation for being liberal, so in 1870, the parliament asked Amadeo I to be the king. Amadeo I faced many problems, including not being accepted by Carlists (leading to further Carlist Wars), some monarchists wanting the Bourbon dynasty to be restored, the assassination of General Prim, and a rebellion against Spanish rule in Cuba.
The Bourbon Restoration
1874: Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. During his reign, the Constitution of 1869 was replaced with a much more conservative constitution.
- Conservatives: Replaced the moderates.
- Liberals: Replaced the progressives.