19th-Century Europe: Society, Culture, and Philosophy
Historical Context of 19th-Century Europe
The second half of the nineteenth century was characterized by the consolidation of industrial capitalism as a developmental model. This model distributed the world among colonial powers. The nineteenth century was a dynamic and active period. European civilization moved forward, animated by revolutionary crises that accelerated economic development. It was a creative century, as evidenced by numerous discoveries. Science entered the realm of natural phenomena and processes. It was also the century of science and technology, affirming faith in scientific progress. However, the century was multifaceted and lacked unity. Excessive rationalism culminated in romantic idealism. New generations disclaimed any conception of the universe based on religious or metaphysical speculation, choosing to be realists or positivists. The scientific and technical development achieved during the nineteenth century shattered the old frameworks governing human society and led to a new approach: human life based on the experience of material phenomena.
Cultural Context: Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
Between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Western society underwent a series of decisive changes. This period was marked by a profound crisis of certainty. Europeans sought new beliefs in response to this crisis. Europe extended its liberal democratic system to almost everyone. There was a reaction against Realism. Impressionism gained prominence in painting, and Modernism emerged at the end of the century. In music, Romanticism gave way to Impressionism. In Central Europe, a renewal of European culture sought to overcome the uncertainties of the crisis and affirm the primacy of life. This new movement, vitalism, represented a philosophy and cultural attitude that emphasized life and its values, advocating for the subordination of the rational to the vital, expressed as *vital reason*. A key representative of this movement was Nietzsche. In the social sphere, this period was marked by social revolutions. This led states to develop systems of social control, strengthening the police and army, and emphasizing their military character.
Philosophical Context: The End of Grand Systems
Within the realm of philosophy, this era marked the end of large, systematic philosophies. A number of diverse movements appeared. Philosophical works, rather than presenting systematic organizations, became discussions and analyses of specific themes in the form of essays. New topics for philosophical reflection emerged, such as the understanding of human development and its laws.
- Auguste Comte: Comte believed progress was driven by the “Law of Three Stages.” He envisioned a happy societal life guided by the “religion of humanity,” focusing on the *how* rather than the *why* of things.
- Charles Darwin: Darwin discovered the principles of evolution: variation, inheritance, and increased reproduction. This led to natural selection through the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest.
- Utopian Socialism: Utopian Socialism critiqued the capitalist system, denouncing its abuses and defects while proposing a new, more just, and equitable economic and social organization.
- Scientific Socialism: The transition from utopian socialism to scientific socialism resulted from several factors in the mid-nineteenth century. Socialism emerged as the necessary product of the struggle between two historically formed classes.
- Karl Marx: Marx, in his foundational work, stated that the course of history develops according to specific laws: the infrastructure of society determines the superstructure. Within the base, the productive forces and relations of production develop dialectically. The class struggle propels history forward.
- Irrationalism and Vitalism: In the mid-nineteenth century, a group of thinkers established a philosophy centered on the exaltation of the vital and emotional, in contrast to the excessive rationalism of Hegelian idealism or Comte’s positivism. This was irrationalism and the affirmation of life as the fundamental reality of human beings.