19th Century Europe: Transformations and Political Shifts
Postdam Conference
In the summer of 1945, representatives of the USA (Truman), the USSR (Stalin), and Britain (Atlee) met again at the Postdam Conference.
- Germany was divided into four zones: USA, USSR, Britain, and France. The Soviet zone was also divided into four zones.
- It was established that Nazi war criminals would be tried at the Nuremberg Trials.
- The amount of German war reparations and Poland’s borders were determined.
Old Regime Society
Privilege: The clergy and nobility enjoyed major advantages over commoners. They had special laws and did not pay taxes.
The Estate of Nobility: A person’s estate was determined at birth. Commoners had no way to move up.
- High Nobility: Occupied high positions in the government and the military.
- Low Nobility: Had less money and possessions.
Clergy:
- High Clergy: Archbishops and bishops were often the younger sons of noble families.
- Low Clergy: Priests and monks were from commoner families.
Commoners: 80% of the population.
- Bourgeoisie: Merchants, doctors, and artisans. Their political power was limited to city government. They demanded equality before the law and participation in government.
- Peasantry: Worked on the land of the nobles. They paid taxes to the king and the church, and rents to the nobility.
The Enlightenment
Reason: Should be applied to all areas of life. Some aspects of absolutism and the privileges of the nobility and clergy were criticized.
Natural Rights: Individual liberty belonged to all human beings.
Tolerance: Was the basis of coexistence.
Knowledge: Using reason was the key to happiness. Great importance was placed on education and experimental sciences, which were considered vital for human progress.
Thinkers of the Enlightenment
- John Locke (1632-1704): The state was a result of a social contract between the government and the people. This contract could be broken if the government was unjust.
- Voltaire: Defended a strong monarchy that respected civil liberties.
- Rousseau: Sovereignty resided in the people, who allowed a higher authority to govern in their name.
- Montesquieu: Advocated for the separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Congress of Vienna
The Austrian Foreign Minister, Prince Metternich, played a leading role. He tried to guarantee a lasting peace and avoid revolutions. France returned to its pre-revolution frontiers. Austria, Prussia, and Russia acquired new territories. States were reinforced around France as a protective barrier against future expansion.
Absolutism
Monarchs governed, introduced, and ratified laws, and named judges. The Divine Right of Kings meant the monarch was above the law and had been chosen by God to govern. There were two exceptions: the Dutch Republic and England.
Liberalism
The power of a monarch needed to be restricted by a constitution that respected the sovereignty of the people and guaranteed individual liberties.
Bourbon Restoration
Isabel II abdicated in favor of her son, Alfonso, who became King Alfonso XII. The objective was to establish stability after a long period of pronunciamientos. The Constitution of 1876 established a constitutional monarchy, limited suffrage, and a range of rights and liberties. A system of rotation of power, known as the turno pacífico, was implemented. The Conservatives, led by Cánovas del Castillo, and the Liberals, led by Sagasta, alternated in government. This system was based on political manipulation of elections. This arrangement prevented new parties from participating in government.
Parliament of Cadiz
People created local governments called Juntas to organize resistance against José I. The most important was the Junta Central Suprema in Aranjuez. The French invasion caused a change of location, first to Seville and finally to Cadiz, the only city on the peninsula not occupied by the French.
Groups:
- Liberals favored political reforms.
- Conservatives supported absolutism.
- Deputies represented the American colonies.
Approved on March 19, 1812, the Constitution recognized national sovereignty, with power exercised through its representatives.