19th Century European Literature: Realism and Naturalism
19th Century European Literature: Focus on Reality
European literature of the second half of the 19th century focused on reality and its problems. This characteristic reflects the significant influence of contemporary societal shifts and changes on artistic creation.
The Rise of the Middle Class and Industrial Revolution
Throughout the 19th century, the middle class thrived due to the application of scientific advancements to industry, a period known as the Industrial Revolution. The triumph of the machine rapidly enriched the bourgeoisie, leading to the abandonment of liberal ideas once they achieved political power. The Industrial Revolution and capitalism transformed Western society. The inherited nobility lost importance, caught between the “aristocracy of money” and a new class, the industrial proletariat. This new class lacked the protection of the bourgeoisie’s power and lived in near misery.
Realism and Naturalism Reflect Social Imbalance
Realistic and, especially, naturalistic literature mirrored this social imbalance by portraying the negative aspects of industrialized Europe.
Positivism’s Influence on Thought
In the realm of thought, positivism, championed by Auguste Comte, emerged during this time. This philosophical school reduced human knowledge to objective facts that could be perceived by the senses and verified through experience. In practice, positivism valued empirical natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry) over the theological and metaphysical concerns that had previously dominated European thought.
Science and the Rise of Naturalism
Individuals of this era relied on the seemingly limitless power of science to answer life’s big questions. This was exemplified by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and Gregor Mendel’s exposition of the laws of inheritance. Naturalism, a late 19th-century trend, capitalized on these new scientific ideas, applying them to society. Writers viewed their literary works as patients to be treated using the new experimental methods.
The Emergence of Realism in France
The realistic movement originated in France with Stendhal. According to Stendhal, the novel should objectively reflect the surrounding reality and be subject to the reader’s consideration. Following Stendhal, Balzac and Flaubert established the definitive form of realistic art, which spread from France to become the dominant literary form.
Key Features of Realism
This desire to portray reality as accurately as possible led to the major characteristics of realism:
- Description of the real world
- Tendency towards omniscience
- Thoroughness
- Desire for objectivity
Formal Aspects of Realism in Literature
Narrative Techniques
The narrator of a realist story can be seen as subtly split into several perspectives, with the reader only perceiving the shifts in viewpoint. The novel might begin in the first-person plural, as in the description of Charles’ arrival at school. The narrator could be identified with the author recounting school memories, providing a historical record that enhances the sense of realism.
On the other hand, the primary voice is often an omniscient narrator, describing both external reality and details like the characters’ psychology. This narrator is presented as an objective observer who reports without expressing opinions or as a philosopher-narrator who offers critical assessments and draws conclusions from events.
In addition to these, there are occasional narrators who replace the omniscient one in the monologues of different characters. One notable feature of realist works is the masterful use of free indirect speech. This technique allows a third-person narrator to reflect the characters’ thoughts without directly intervening, creating an impression of neutrality and greater credibility.
Madame Bovary: A Masterpiece of Realism
Madame Bovary is considered one of the most admired novels of all time, and its heroine, Emma Bovary, is one of the most studied literary figures by doctors, psychologists, sociologists, and critics. Several factors contribute to this reputation:
- The skillful development of the plot, through which Flaubert aims to expose both the romantic falsehoods of education and the mediocre and insipid nature of bourgeois life.
- The profound psychological analysis of the characters, particularly the protagonists, who, lacking willpower and at the mercy of events or their instincts, are inexorably led to chaos.
- The absence of heroes or villains: Flaubert presents ordinary, vulgar people, made of trivialities, petty miseries, and ambitions, reflecting the essence of any society.
- The scientific objectivity and thoroughness with which Flaubert describes the environments and situations his characters encounter, never taking sides in their actions.
- The quality of the prose, which Flaubert sought to imbue with the same precision, harmony, and beauty as verse.
Cervantes’ Influence and the Tragic Heroine
The protagonist’s roots can be traced back to Cervantes’ Don Quixote (“Don Quixote in a skirt”). Both Emma and the Knight of La Mancha are misfits attempting to realize their dreams in a world that no longer aligns with their ideals. Reading causes Don Quixote to lose his reason, while it leads to the erosion of Emma’s moral sense.