19th Century European Revolutions and Unification
Revolutions and Unifications of 19th Century Europe
Revolution of 1848
The Revolution of 1848 was fueled by the rise of liberalism and national aspirations, coupled with the social unrest caused by early industrialization. Economic difficulties, the potato famine of 1845-1846, poor grain harvests, and rising prices shook Europe. The industrial crisis had specific consequences in Paris. Manufacturers and wholesalers, unable to export their products, faced competition from large stores that ruined small traders, leading them to join the revolution.
Unification of Germany
German national sentiment, rooted in Romantic nostalgia for the Middle Ages, was further ignited by the French Revolution. The Prussian kingdom led the unification process, ultimately excluding Austria. The conservative politician Bismarck orchestrated German unity. Prussia formed a customs union with northern German states and, alongside Austria, declared war on Denmark. In 1866, tensions between Austria and Prussia over the administration of duchies escalated, culminating in Austria’s defeat at Sadowa. The North German Confederation, established in 1867, comprised a Bundesrat (council) and a Reichstag (parliament) elected by universal male suffrage. Following the French army’s defeat at Sedan and Metz in 1870, the Third Republic was proclaimed in France.
Unification of Italy
The Risorgimento, a cultural and political movement, led to the unification of Italy and the creation of a new liberal state. While some conservatives favored a federation of states without papal involvement, the popular classes desired a democratic republic. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy, spearheaded the unification. The Second French Empire provided crucial diplomatic support to Piedmont. With French assistance, Piedmontese and French troops defeated the Austrian army, annexing Milan and Lombardy to Piedmont, thus uniting Northern Italy. Garibaldi captured Naples and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860. Venice joined Italy in 1866, and the Italian army occupied papal Rome in 1870, establishing it as the capital. Pope Pius IX excommunicated Victor Emmanuel II.
Congress of Vienna and the 1820, 1830 Revolutions
The Congress of Vienna (1815) redrew the map of Europe and established the Holy Alliance. Representatives of European monarchies aimed to restore territorial and political order. Austria, Prussia, Britain, Russia, France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden participated. The Austrian Empire gained influence over the Italian peninsula, the Bourbons were restored, and the Papal States were confirmed. Russia expanded westward, Prussia gained territory, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed. The Germanic Confederation was established in Germany.
The 1820 revolutions began in the Mediterranean. The absolutism of Ferdinand VII became untenable in Spain, leading to an uprising. The Holy Alliance, alarmed by the spread of revolutions to Naples, Portugal, and Piedmont, intervened. The Congress of Verona ended the liberal triennium in Spain.
In 1830, France’s Charles X, facing a liberal parliament, suppressed press freedom and dissolved the Chamber of Deputies. The July Revolution in Paris forced Charles X into exile, and Louis Philippe of Orleans became king under a more liberal constitution. Belgium declared independence from Dutch rule. Britain’s Reform Act expanded suffrage. Liberal and nationalist uprisings in Poland were suppressed by Russia. In Spain, the death of Ferdinand VII triggered the Carlist Wars between Isabella II’s supporters and Carlists. The independence of Belgium reshaped the European map, and liberalism continued to spread in Eastern Europe.