19th-Century Geopolitics: Ireland, Russia, & Bismarck’s System
The Irish Question
Ireland, under English rule since the late Middle Ages, remained a nominally independent kingdom until 1800. The Act of Union then united Ireland and Great Britain within the United Kingdom. Tensions escalated in the 1870s due to economic crises and the expulsion of Irish tenant farmers from lands owned by English landlords. The rise of Irish nationalism, including Charles Stewart Parnell’s movement, further fueled the conflict. Violence spiraled, but the Kilmainham Treaty offered a temporary reprieve. Irish nationalists gained seats in the British Parliament and, a year later, presented Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill, proposing an autonomous Ireland within the UK. However, the Irish Question remained unresolved. The 1916 Easter Rising ultimately led to the partition of Ireland, with the Catholic south achieving independence in the 1920s. Clashes continued throughout the 20th century.
The Russian Empire
The Russian Empire saw relatively few changes during the 19th century. It remained an absolute monarchy, expanding its territory after the Congress of Vienna. Russia held expansionist aspirations in three directions: east into Manchuria and Sakhalin Island, south into Turkestan, and west with the incorporation of Bessarabia and parts of Finland and Poland. The empire’s ethnic diversity was vast, dominated by Slavs but also including Caucasian, Asian, and Jewish communities. This diversity led to both centrifugal forces seeking separation and pan-Slavist movements promoting Russian culture and language. The Tsars’ internal policy focused on maintaining autocratic rule despite growing opposition.
Alexander II (1855-1881)
Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War forced social reforms. The abolition of serfdom, while significant, did not substantially improve the peasants’ situation. Early industrialization began, and the railway network expanded. Other reforms aimed to improve justice. However, Alexander II’s government also intensified repression against opposition movements, leading to terrorism and the Tsar’s assassination.
Alexander III (1881-1894)
Alexander III’s reign was highly conservative. Tax reform and European capital fueled industrialization, exemplified by the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The government controlled education and culture while persecuting all forms of opposition. A political police force was established to combat terrorism.
Nicholas II (1894-1917)
Nicholas II continued repressive policies. Imperial expansion led to the Russo-Japanese War, which Russia lost. This defeat and social unrest culminated in the 1905 Revolution.
Bismarckian Systems
Bismarck’s system of alliances unfolded in three phases.
“First System”
Bismarck secured two agreements in 1873: one German-Russian and another Austro-Russian. These, along with the League of the Three Emperors (Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary), formed the initial system. Nationalist revolts in Bosnia and Bulgaria led to Russian intervention, resulting in the Treaty of San Stefano, which created a large, Russian-influenced Bulgaria. Bismarck convened the Congress of Berlin, overturning these agreements.
“Second System”
The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was signed. The League of the Three Emperors was renewed, bringing Russia back into the fold. The Triple Alliance, including Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was formed. Major powers engaged in an intense arms race, a period known as the Armed Peace, leading up to World War I.
“Third System”
This phase largely continued the second system. New rivalries emerged between Russia and Austria. Bismarck negotiated treaties to maintain the Balkan balance of power and isolate France, including the secret “Reinsurance Treaty” with Russia. However, this system was fragile. Growing Franco-Russian relations, coupled with Austria’s discovery of the Reinsurance Treaty, marked the end of Bismarck’s era.