19th-Century Imperialism: Africa and Asia
The Distribution of the World: 19th-Century Imperialism
Imperialism and Colonialism: There is a big difference between the imperialism of the 16th century and that of the 19th century. While the first wave of imperialism focused on the Americas and involved significant, often peaceful, European emigration, the second wave targeted Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. This later imperialism saw little European emigration, with a small white minority imposing itself on the indigenous majority, and was very belligerent.
The “Discovery” of Africa
At the start of the 19th century, Africa, with a population of around 10 million, was sparsely populated. Europeans only had small colonies along the coasts. During the second half of the 19th century, scientific explorations (by figures like Livingstone and Stanley) and missionary expeditions were conducted along the great rivers (Nile, Congo, Zambezi, and Niger). By 1870, two powers sought to create empires:
- Great Britain: Aimed for a continuous empire from Cairo in the north to the Cape in the south.
- France: Desired continuous rule from Senegal in the west to Sudan in the east.
King Leopold II of Belgium acquired the central Congo region. In 1885, German Chancellor Bismarck convened a conference in Berlin to discuss the distribution of Africa and the Pacific. It was established that:
- African rivers could be navigated by any European country.
- Before a country could claim a territory and establish a colony, it had to notify other European countries.
There were several clashes between European countries:
- Between Great Britain and France at Fashoda (Sudan), which Great Britain won, allowing them to continue their empire southward.
- Between Great Britain and Portugal, who wanted to unite Angola with Mozambique; Great Britain prevailed.
- Between Great Britain and the Netherlands over the Boer Republics in South Africa, resulting in the British Empire extending from north to south.
Causes of Imperialism
Europe’s dominance, due to the advance of industrialization in the last quarter of the 19th century, led rich, industrialized European countries to conquer the “Third World” (Asia and Africa). These underdeveloped countries would be exploited, and European culture would be imposed upon them.
Economic Causes
- Obtain raw materials and abundant, cheap energy sources.
- Utilize cheap and unqualified labor.
- Establish markets where Europeans could sell their processed products.
- Invest European capital in Third World transport (rail) and infrastructure (ports and roads).
Political and Demographic Reasons
Politically, there was a desire for prestige among the great European powers and the need to control trade routes. European countries also sought strategic areas for use in case of war. Demographically, colonies were seen as places to settle Europe’s surplus population.
Ideological Reasons
To explore the unknown parts of the world, scientific societies were created to explore Africa via the great rivers. Missionaries of all religions also arrived, exploiting territories in the Third World. European leaders received information from these sources and justified their conquests with two ideologies:
- Racist: This ideology emphasized the superiority of the white race and promoted extreme nationalism (chauvinism), believing they were superior beings who had to impose their culture and religion on the Third World.
- Paternalistic: Based on Rudyard Kipling’s theory that the white man had a responsibility to civilize those in need through education and religious instruction via missionaries.