19th Century Imperialism: European Powers in Asia
The 19th century witnessed significant European penetration into Asia, involving not only traditional colonial powers like France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands, but also Russia, the USA, and Japan.
British Colonization in India
British colonization was concentrated in India, where the English East India Company had established ports in Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay since the 18th century. Following the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the British government assumed direct control of India and established a viceroy. The economic, social, and military significance of this colony exemplified British power, and Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1877. To secure the colony, the British competed with France to annex Burma in 1886.
French Expansion in Indochina
French expansion centered on Indochina, leading to conflicts in Southeast Asia. France, present in Cochin since 1858-1860, annexed the Mekong region between 1860 and 1880 and established a protectorate over Cambodia. After a war with China, they also established protectorates over Annam and Tonkin. In 1887, these territories formed the Union of French Indochina, which Laos joined in 1893.
British Presence in Southeast Asia
Great Britain was also present in the area, imposing its rule over the Malay states and Singapore after taking Burma. British and French agreed to recognize Siam as a neutral state to serve as a buffer between their empires in 1895-1896.
Russian Expansion into Siberia
In the 19th century, the Russian Empire continued its expansion into Siberia, which had begun in the 17th century. This expansion brought Russia to the borders of British India, leading to disputes over control of Persia and Afghanistan in 1880. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 pitted two major Asian imperialist powers against each other. The colonization of these new lands intensified in the second half of the 19th century, with over 5 million Russians migrating to Siberia.
The Scramble for China
China was a unique case, as it was not fully occupied by any single country. However, Europeans gained significant economic influence in the early 19th century. The English balanced their purchases of Chinese tea and silk with the sale of opium from India. In 1839, the Chinese government banned opium imports, but Britain continued to sell it, leading to the Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860). Britain won the enclave of Hong Kong and the opening of twelve ports to international trade, revealing the Chinese empire’s weakness. Between 1885 and 1911, European countries and Japan engaged in a veritable scramble for China. France focused on the southwest, Great Britain on the south and the Yangtze River, Russia and Japan on the northeast around Manchuria, and Germany and Britain on the Shandong peninsula.
Economic Interference and Nationalist Reactions in China
British economic interference intensified, particularly in the exploitation of mines, railways, and trade controls. This exploitation led to nationalistic reactions, such as the Hundred Days’ Reform in 1898 and the Boxer Rebellion of 1900-1901, both of which failed. In 1911, a revolution ended imperial rule and proclaimed a republic, aiming to liberate China from colonial dependence and achieve national reconstruction.
European Control in Oceania
Europeans also controlled other parts of the world. In Oceania, the British held the most important territories, Australia and New Zealand, which were developed as settler colonies and became sovereign states within the British Empire. The Dutch had established a large colony in Indonesia.