19th Century Nationalism, Nation Building, and European Imperialism
1. The Triumph of Nationalism in Europe
The Birth of Nationalism
Nation: A group of people born in one place, under the command of a single monarch. In the nineteenth century, the word nation acquires a political hue.
Two approaches:
- The German Romantics: Associate nation and culture. The nation will be the set of people who share culture, language, and history in common.
- French theorists: Political conception of the nation. A group of people who share the same laws, rights, and duties. The rights and duties giving rise to two processes: nationalization policies and nationalist movements.
Nationalization policy: The United States wanted to develop a national sense of patriotic pride. It comes from using the national language; national symbols appear (flags, anthems, etc.); sports competitions promote love for the country. Conversely, there were also feelings of hatred for other countries.
Nationalist movements disintegrating:
- Belgium seceded from the Netherlands (1830).
- The Austro-Hungarian and Turkish empires fragmented into several independent states.
- Ireland became independent from Great Britain (1922).
Unifying movements: Italy and Germany sought unification.
- Italy: Part of the Italian territory (Lombardo-Veneto kingdom) belonged to the Austrian Empire. The unification process was led by Piedmont and culminated in 1861.
- Germany: The Prussian unification, led by military means, was accelerated thanks to William I and his prime minister, Bismarck. In 1871, the German Empire was born (II Reich).
2. Building a Nation: United States
Westward Expansion
The United States’ population increased from 5 to 23 million due to the influx of immigrants from Germany and Great Britain. New territories were incorporated (Louisiana and Florida). California and New Mexico joined after the war with Mexico. Thus, the United States reached the Pacific coast. The territory was divided into three regions: Northeast (large industrial and urban development), South (agricultural), and West (small farmers).
The Problem of Slavery and the Civil War: Northern and Western states abolished slavery, but the Southern states retained slaves for their agricultural economy. Several Southern states seceded and formed a confederation. President Abraham Lincoln and the U.S. Congress sought to bring them back. The Civil War lasted four years (1861-1865); the North won, but it was a very destructive war.
Rebuilding: After the war, the Reconstruction period began with substantial economic development. The South abolished slavery but also abolished laws favorable to blacks. Politically, two parties emerged, Republicans and Democrats, which continue to this day.
3. Liberalism and Authoritarianism in Europe
Consolidation of Liberalism in Britain and France
In these two countries, there was gradual progress towards democracy: universal male suffrage, religious freedom and expression, and modern political parties. Changes in political parties included the representation of Socialist parties in parliament and the development of modern political strategies (meetings, political posters, etc.). However, true democracy was not fully achieved:
- Women still could not vote, leading to the women’s suffrage movement fighting for their rights.
- Electoral manipulation by the powerful sought to control election results.
- The first unemployment benefits and pensions were created, leading to the development of the welfare state.
The Maintenance of Authoritarian Political Systems: In other countries, progress towards liberalism was limited.
- In Russia, the Tsar, nobility, church, and army monopolized power.
- Germany adopted a constitution with a parliament, but the emperor and prime minister could challenge its decisions.
- In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the emperor, church, aristocracy, and army controlled power; universal suffrage was recognized in 1906.
4. The Origins of European Imperialism
What is Imperialism?
The term imperialism refers to the extension of one country’s domain over another. The conquering country is the metropolis, and the conquered territories are the colonies. In the nineteenth century, empires were created by Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and outside Europe, the USA and Japan. Spain lost its colonies in Latin America and the Pacific. The expansion of the century was rapid and complete, explained by the military superiority of the colonizing countries.
Types of Factors:
Economic Factors: Due to the Industrial Revolution, colonies became large production markets where people had to pay taxes. They were also places to invest capital and offered cheap raw materials for industries.
Political Factors: Strategic locations were conquered to control important sea and land routes.
Demographic Factors: Millions of Europeans emigrated to the colonies in search of work; governments encouraged these migrations.
Ideological Factors: Racist ideas promoted Western colonial expansion. Westerners were convinced of their racial superiority and the need to civilize the peoples of Asia, Africa, and Oceania, leading to the establishment of missions. Another idea was that colonization was driven by scientific curiosity, leading to expeditions around the globe; once a territory was explored, the country that organized the expedition had the right to conquer and exploit it.