19th Century Nationalism & Nation Building: Europe & USA
The Rise of Nationalism and Empires (1848-1914)
Three Defining Processes
The period from 1848 to the start of World War I (1914) was shaped by three key processes:
- The spread of nationalist ideologies, leading to the creation of new states and the rise of patriotic sentiment.
- The establishment of liberalism across most of Europe, with some countries even making tentative steps towards democracy.
- The territorial expansion of major European powers, resulting in vast empires and the division of the world.
The Triumph of Nationalism in Europe
The creation of nation-states, a process originating in the 19th-century liberal revolutions, was significantly influenced by nationalism—an ideology with diverse interpretations.
The Birth of Nationalism
In the Middle Ages and the early modern period, a nation was understood as a group of people born in the same place and ruled by a single monarch. During the 19th century, the concept of a nation evolved. Many argued that state borders should align with ethnic, linguistic, or cultural boundaries. This led to two distinct interpretations of nationalism:
- The German Romantic view: A nation was a living entity shaped over time by shared culture, language, and history, possessing the right to organize itself as a sovereign state.
- The French view: A nation was a political entity formed by the voluntary association of people. Citizenship, defined by shared laws, rights, and duties, rather than shared culture, was the defining characteristic of a nation.
These two ideologies led to two parallel processes: state-led nationalization policies and grassroots nationalist movements.
State-Led Nationalization Policies
19th-century states aimed to cultivate national sentiment, social cohesion, and patriotic pride. They promoted a national language through education, celebrated traditions, and established national symbols like flags and anthems. Sporting competitions also played a role in fostering patriotism. However, this often came at the expense of tolerance, as other nations were perceived as threats.
Disintegrating Nationalist Movements
Many nationalist movements sought to break apart existing political entities. Belgium, for example, separated from the Netherlands to become an independent state. The most notable cases were the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, both composed of diverse populations. The Austro-Hungarian Empire resisted disintegration throughout the 19th century, while the Ottoman Empire began to fragment in the early 19th century, with Greece and Serbia gaining independence in 1829. Romania, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Albania followed suit. Ireland, under British rule, made unsuccessful attempts at independence until 1922, with Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom.
Unifying Nationalist Movements: Italy and Germany
Other nationalist movements aimed to unite divided populations, as seen in Italy and Germany.
The Italian peninsula was fragmented into several states, some under foreign control. The Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, for instance, belonged to the Austrian Empire. However, a shared language fostered a sense of unity among Italians. Led by Piedmont, the unification process culminated in 1861.
In Germany, Prussia spearheaded unification. During the first half of the 19th century, Prussia established mechanisms for economic cooperation among German states. From 1862, King William I of Prussia and his prime minister, Bismarck, accelerated unification through military means. The German Empire, the Second Reich, emerged as a major power in 1871.
Nation Building in the United States
Two key processes defined the United States in the 19th century: westward expansion and the Civil War. The country experienced significant territorial growth and rapid economic development.
Westward Expansion
Between 1800 and 1850, the US population surged due to immigration, primarily from Germany and Great Britain. New territories were acquired: the Louisiana Purchase and Florida from France and Spain, respectively, in the early 19th century; Oregon from Britain in 1845; and Texas through annexation in the same year. Following a brief war with Mexico, New Mexico and California were incorporated in 1848, extending US territory to the Pacific coast, which was swiftly colonized.
Westward expansion provided land and shaped American identity. Three distinct regions emerged: the industrial and urban Northeast, the agrarian South with its slave-based cotton and tobacco plantations, and the West, dominated by small independent farmers.
The Problem of Slavery and the Civil War
The US Constitution left the issue of slavery to individual states. Northern and western states abolished slavery, while the South maintained it due to its dependence on cotton and tobacco plantations. Tensions between abolitionist and slave states intensified in the mid-19th century. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln, who opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories, was elected president. Shortly after, eleven southern states seceded and formed the Confederacy. Lincoln and Congress insisted that no state had the right to secede and sought to enforce reunification through military action.
The Civil War, lasting nearly four years, resulted in a Union victory. It was a devastating conflict, marked by the use of modern weaponry.
Reconstruction
The post-war period, known as Reconstruction, was a time of economic prosperity. The US experienced rapid industrial growth, becoming the world’s leading industrial nation by the early 20th century. Slavery was abolished after the war. However, after federal troops withdrew from the South, southern states enacted laws that restricted the rights of African Americans. During this period, the two-party system, with Republicans and Democrats, emerged and continues to this day.