19th Century Politics and Colonialism
Democratic Liberalism
The new democratic ideas focused on defending popular sovereignty against national sovereignty. Consequently, universal male suffrage facilitated the pursuit of social equality. In 1793, the first socialist movements emerged, demanding social reforms such as the right to work, education, and health insurance. Nationalist movements also gained momentum, leading to the political unification of fragmented nations like Italy and Germany, or the pursuit of independence within empires, like in Austria.
The French Revolution of 1848
Paris was the initial center of the revolutionary process, driven by the lower and middle bourgeoisie and the working class, amidst political and economic turmoil. In February 1848, restrictions on freedoms imposed by the conservative government (e.g., bans on meetings) triggered an insurrection. This culminated in the storming of the Royal Palace, the flight of King Louis Philippe of Orleans, and the proclamation of the Second Republic. A provisional government, comprising republicans, socialists, and radicals, implemented political and social reforms: political freedoms, universal male suffrage, abolition of slavery and the death penalty, and state intervention in the economy to guarantee the right to work.
The Third French Republic
Following the fall of the Second Empire, the Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris. In the ensuing decades, France became the sole major republic in Europe. Bismarck’s foreign policy, characterized by a dangerous isolationism, only shifted with his rapprochement with Russia in the 1890s. Simultaneously, France underwent significant colonial expansion overseas. Domestically, a division emerged between the secular republican left and the clerical, authoritarian right. At the century’s end, tensions erupted with the Dreyfus Affair, a military espionage and corruption scandal that exposed deep societal divisions and the prevalence of anti-Semitism.
Bismarck and the Armed Peace
Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor, prioritized avoiding military conflicts that could hinder the development of the German nation. His policy centered on establishing a network of international alliances, known as the Bismarckian system, aimed at isolating France and safeguarding the stability of the newly formed German state. The period between 1871 and 1914 is known as the Armed Peace because, despite military buildups, Europe experienced few wars.
Colonial Empires
The major colonizing powers included Great Britain and France.
Great Britain
Great Britain had become the world’s leading maritime power, exerting control over strategic locations. Its colonies spanned the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. In Africa, it established an empire stretching from north to south. By the early 20th century, the British Empire was the largest globally.
France
France possessed the second-largest colonial empire, with territories in Asia (Indochina Union) and Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Chad, Madagascar, etc.).
Consequences of Colonial Imperialism
Colonial imperialism resulted in significant changes, including:
- Exploitation of natural and human resources
- Colonial economic dependence
- Construction of infrastructure and administrative systems
- Political dominance by the mother country
- Use of colonies to settle rivalries between colonizing powers
- Population growth in the colonies
- Disruption of indigenous social structures
- Development of urban life and racial segregation
- Suppression of indigenous cultures
Consequences of Imperialism
Imperialism was the process by which Western powers systematically subjugated, controlled, and exploited vast regions of Africa and Asia. This process was driven by various interests: political, cultural, and scientific. The main consequences were:
- Demographic: Population growth in the 19th century, particularly in colonies in the Americas.
- Economic: Control of raw materials, trade routes, and access to exclusive markets.
- Political: Maintaining or regaining international prestige and asserting national power on the world stage.
- Ideological: A historical mission to spread Western civilization and values.
- Scientific and Technological: Advancements in science, improvements in transportation and weaponry.
- Social: Colonial expansion and its impact on indigenous societies.
Colonial Expansion
Colony formation involved military occupation, the establishment of political and administrative structures, and economic exploitation.
Types of Colonies
Colonies were categorized as: colonies with European populations, protectorates, exploitation colonies, and spheres of influence.
The exploitation of colonies was based on a “colonial pact,” whereby the colonizing power exchanged manufactured goods for raw materials, maintaining a monopoly over trade and controlling the colony’s resources.