19th Century Realism: A Literary Movement
From Romanticism to Realism
During the second half of the nineteenth century, romantic aesthetics gave way to realism in three stages:
- 1830-1848: Romanticism remained dominant, but writers like Stendhal and Balzac began to describe environments more objectively.
- 1848 Onward: Realism gained prominence across Europe with authors like Flaubert (France), Dickens (England), Tolstoy and Dostoevsky (Russia), and Galdós (Spain).
- 1875 Onward: Realism evolved into naturalism, championed by Zola, though the lines between the two movements are often blurred.
Social and Historical Context
Realism’s emergence is tied to the socio-political and economic shifts of the late 19th century. The bourgeoisie solidified its power, capitalism thrived, and scientific and technological advancements propelled industrial growth. Democratic liberalism spread, yet authoritarian ideologies persisted. Positivism, with its emphasis on objective observation, led to new theories like evolution, determinism, and heredity. This resulted in significant scientific progress, including medical breakthroughs, geographical discoveries, and the development of telegraphs and railways. Interest in reality also extended to politics with the rise of Marxist theories, which analyzed society through the lens of class struggle and predicted the proletariat’s eventual overthrow of capitalism.
The Rise of the Realist Novel
In this bourgeois society, romanticism’s idealism lost its appeal. The new aesthetic focused on realistic depictions of the everyday world. The novel became the primary genre, exploring the individual’s relationship with society rather than the isolated romantic hero. Realist novels tackled diverse, sometimes controversial, themes. Authors aimed for objectivity, often employing an omniscient narrator. They provided detailed descriptions of settings, customs, and characters, resulting in complex narratives with linear timelines and accessible language, devoid of romantic rhetoric.
Key Figures and Characteristics
Realism flourished throughout Europe. In France, Stendhal (Red and Black) and Balzac (The Shagreen) laid the groundwork, followed by Flaubert (Madame Bovary) at realism’s peak. Dickens (Oliver Twist, David Copperfield) became a key figure in England. Russian realism, with authors like Dostoevsky and Tolstoy (War and Peace, Anna Karenina), delved deeper into characters’ psychological complexities. The novel also gained popularity in the U.S., with authors like Melville (Moby Dick) and Mark Twain (Tom Sawyer), though not strictly realist.
The Emergence of Naturalism
By 1875, naturalism, spearheaded by Emile Zola, grew out of realism. While the boundaries between the two are not always distinct, naturalism often intensified realism’s characteristics, focusing on more extreme environments, deterministic narratives, and anti-bourgeois, socialist ideologies.