19th Century Revolutions & Expansions: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Africa
French Revolution
A) Revolt of the Privileged
Amid rising prices and the bourgeoisie enjoying high profits, the French Revolution began. Encouraged by Enlightenment ideals, the bourgeoisie demanded political changes, while a powerful aristocracy clung to the old feudal model. A severe economic crisis, marked by hunger and popular discontent, further complicated the situation. Royal finances were in chronic deficit, primarily because the aristocracy paid no taxes, leading to the brink of bankruptcy.
B) National Constituent Assembly
Louis XVI’s minister, Calonne, proposed taxing the nobility. The nobility objected, claiming only the Estates-General could approve such a measure. This political crisis forced Louis XVI to convene the Estates-General. The bourgeoisie, through the Cahiers de Doléances (Notebooks of Grievances), voiced their demands, primarily for more representation in the Estates-General.
The Estates-General opened at Versailles. The Third Estate demanded a joint meeting of all estates and a vote per person. The King and the privileged classes refused, leading to the suspension of the Estates-General. The Third Estate then formed the National Assembly. The King relented, and the Estates-General transformed into the Constituent Assembly. The arrival of troops to suppress the Assembly culminated in the storming of the Bastille prison on July 14th. This event sparked the Great Fear, spreading unrest throughout the French countryside. The National Assembly abolished feudalism, adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and drafted a constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy based on the separation of powers. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which imposed a constitutional oath on the clergy, caused division within the Church.
C) Legislative Assembly
The royal family attempted to flee France to join Austrian troops and initiate an invasion but were captured at Varennes. In 1791, following the Constitution’s ratification, a new Legislative Assembly was elected, marking the first appearance of political parties: the Jacobins and the Girondins. News of the impending invasion radicalized the populace, leading to the storming of the Tuileries Palace.
D) Convention and the Reign of Terror
The new assembly’s first act was proclaiming the Republic.
The Girondin Convention
With the Girondins in power, the pressing issue was Louis XVI’s fate. He was put on trial, sentenced, and guillotined. The execution of the monarch exacerbated divisions within the Convention and fueled the European anti-revolutionary coalition. The people demanded social and economic reforms, but the Girondin government refused. The Jacobins saw an opportunity to seize control.
The Jacobin Convention and the Reign of Terror
The Jacobins arrested and executed key Girondin leaders, ushering in the Jacobin phase of the Convention. They adopted a new constitution with universal male suffrage, established a revolutionary government, and initiated the Reign of Terror. Robespierre, concentrating all powers, implemented exceptional measures and introduced social reforms.
E) Thermidorian Reaction
With the army defeating foreign enemies, the Republic seemed secure. However, the radicals, led by Robespierre, isolated and eliminated their opponents. Robespierre’s enemies united, arrested, and executed him and his followers. This marked the beginning of the third phase of the Convention. A new constitution restored census suffrage and established a new executive body, the Directory.
German Unification
The progressive affirmation of Prussia in 1815, the German territory was divided into 39 estados.El Congress of Vienna are grouped under the so-called confederation germanica.Presidida by Austria.El most powerful state was the focus of the case of Prussia unificacion.Fue ke in 1834 organized a customs union was involved in ke no kedo Austria.El patent advancing nationalism in the revolution of 1848 when parliament met in the city of Frankfurt was offered the crown of a unified Germany to the King of Prussia, but he refused.
The birth of a great power: As of 1862 the Prussian King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck accelerated the unification process was performed ke via military capacities by 1866 after the victory over Austria in the Battle of Sadowa, Prussia created the Confederation of Northern Germany. In 1870, after the victory over France at the Battle of Sedan, the south German states joined the confederacion.En German empire was born 1871, the Second Reich which was Emperor William I. Germany became a great power.
Unification italy
Initial situation: A mosaic of states. The Italian peninsula had been divided into several sXIX States. the parts of Italy were even under the rule extranjera.La existence of a common language was the basis of requests unidad.En all revolutions of the first half of the nineteenth century nationalist revolts occurred, but were exito.Finalmente unification initiative came from the kingdom of Piedmont, his Prime Minister Cavour, achievement quer the French emperor Napoleon III supported the Italian demands.
Unification Process: In 1859 Italy was military capacities Franco-Piedmontese army defeated at Magenta and Solferino to Austriacos.Una After achieving peace in northern Garibaldi Republican, leading a volunteer army conquered the states sur.Entonces Piedmontese troops occupied central Italy to prevent Garibaldi entered Rome. In 1861, he proclaimed the kingdom of Italy, whose 1st King was Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piamonte.Solo Venice and the Papal States were outside the kingdom who joined in 1866 and 1870.
Japanese expansionism
Meiji revolution, feudalism ended Japan’s economic modernization drive State economic development with the goal of conversion to Japan tir a power industrial imperialist power that rivaled the europeasporAsia.el expansionism asiáabastecerse food outside to defend themselves and deChina Russia, Korea and Manchuria main objectives of Japanese expansionism, Japan intervened enCorea. The invasion Japan win war! Provocaríauna Formosa, Manchuria, forced out Japan’s expansionism was faced with the Russians inManchuria. declared war on the Rusiay defeated his ejército.Japón established himself as an imperialist power,
disembarking from africa
European powers, especially Britain and France, set out to conquer and colonize the continent. The British projecttried to connect the north with southern Africa by train Cairo-Cape, with the goal of dominating the eastern side of the continent and control the Indian Ocean. Great Britain won this race some of the best land, rich in mineral products (diamonds, gold …) and of great strategic value (territory of Suez, where they built the canal). The French projectpurporting to exercise the rule of a strip extending east-west. Since its holdings in Algeria, dominated North Africa (Morocco and Tunisia) and spread to Sudan, where he would face with the British. A rivalry between France and Britain said the action of the Belgian king Leopold II, who commissioned the exploration of the Congo. Finally, the German merchants settled in central Africa and the area became a zone of conflict between European powers. In this situation, in 1885, the German chancellor Bismarck called aInternational Conference in Berlin, attended by 14 European countries. As a result, produced a report which provided some conditions for colonial expansion in Africa: guaranteed free navigation on the rivers Niger and Congo, and established the principles for appointment to the African territories to the English and French empires were added and German interests thePortugal, Italy and Spain landed bit territorios.los clashes ensued. The first conflict was the Boer War that developed in two phases (1880-1881 and 1899-1902). Both faced the United Kingdom with the Netherlands settlers called Boers had moved to escape the occupation británica.encontrado important minasque prompted the British war years invadirvarios