19th Century Revolutions & Industrial Society
Topic 9: The Revolutions of the 19th Century
1. Demographic and Agricultural Revolution
a. Industrial Revolution:
Economic and technological changes began in Great Britain.
b. 18th Century Population Decline:
The population increased from 140 million to 266 million due to several factors:
- Progress in production, hygiene, food, and medicine.
- Better nourishment leading to increased disease resistance.
- Growing population providing more workers for industries.
- Decrease in birth and death rates, and increased life expectancy.
c. Agricultural Revolution (1738-1750):
Increased demand led to rising prices and competition. Production improvements included:
- End of the manorial system and private land ownership.
- Elimination of fallow periods and increased mechanization.
- Introduction of new crops like maize and potatoes (Norfolk system).
2. The Factory System
a. Production:
Concentration of workers and machines in factories.
b. Bessemer Process:
(Drawing)
c. Key Innovations:
- John Kay: After the prohibition of Indian cotton imports, which was processed at home, Kay invented the flying shuttle, accelerating knitting.
- Abraham Darby: Due to the scarcity of iron and the use of charcoal, Darby introduced coke, a more efficient fuel. The Bessemer process later converted iron into steel.
- James Watt: Early machines emerged, rapidly increasing production, reducing costs, and increasing energy demand. Initially powered by water, Watt’s steam engine used coal as fuel.
3. Transportation Revolution
a. Importance of Coal:
Coal became crucial for steam engines, which heated water to create steam that powered mechanisms like locomotives. It was also essential for steel production.
b. Rail Innovation:
Beginning in mines with wagons, rail transport evolved with the introduction of steam locomotives and tracks.
c. Market Economy:
The Industrial Revolution shifted the focus from production to consumption and market sales. This was driven by increased production, population growth, rising demand, and purchasing power.
d. Free Trade and Protectionism:
Free trade advocates promoted open trade between countries for economic growth. However, protectionist views emerged, particularly in Britain, to defend national interests.
4. Industrial Capitalism
a. Adam Smith and Capitalism:
Following the Industrial Revolution, Adam Smith advocated for liberalism as the economic model for Great Britain.
b. Concepts of Capitalism:
Balancing personal and charitable interests, the price mechanism should regulate the market without state intervention.
c. The Role of Banks:
Banks played a vital role by providing loans, investments, facilitating payments, and connecting savers with industrialists.
5. Industrial Society
Wealth created a division of social classes:
- Bourgeoisie: The dominant group, including bankers, investors, and factory owners. Also included professionals, officials, and small business owners.
- Proletariat: The largest and most disadvantaged group, working in factories under harsh conditions (12-14 hour days, low wages, no safety or health regulations) with little hope for improvement.
e. Marxist Socialism:
The Communist Manifesto (1848) laid the foundation for Marxist thought, emphasizing historical materialism and rejecting individualism and spirituality. The concept of surplus value highlighted the exploitation of workers.
f. Anarchism:
Bakunin and Kropotkin advocated for freedom from state, private property, and inheritance. They promoted revolutionary ideas and community-based education.
g. International Workers’ Associations:
Marx encouraged worker unity, leading to the First International (1864-1872). The Second International (1889) brought together socialist parties from various countries, leading to discussions on revisionism and cooperation with bourgeois parties.
6. The Labor Movement
a. The Proletariat’s Situation:
Workers faced difficult conditions during the Industrial Revolution, including long hours, low wages, child labor, and unsafe working environments.
b. Precedents of the Labor Movement:
Early resistance included machine-breaking, exemplified by the Luddites.
c. Unionism:
The legalization of associations in 1824 allowed the formation of unions, which advocated for fair wages and working hours. The Chartist movement (1838) demanded social and political reforms, including universal suffrage.
d. Utopian and Reformist Socialism:
These non-revolutionary movements aimed to create an ideal society through peaceful means, emphasizing goodness and social reforms.
Topic 10: Spain in the 19th Century
a. War of Independence (1805-1814):
- 1805: Charles IV ruled Spain with Godoy as his prime minister. Spain allied with Napoleon, but the Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar.
- 1806: Napoleon’s blockade against England led to the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Spain to invade Portugal, which refused to comply with the blockade.
- 1807: French troops occupied Spanish cities on their way to Portugal.
- March 1808: Mutiny at Aranjuez against Godoy’s rule forced Charles IV to abdicate in favor of Ferdinand VII.
- May 1808: Napoleon summoned the Spanish royal family to Bayonne and took the crown, giving it to his brother under the conditions of maintaining Spain’s religion and territory. The Dos de Mayo uprising in Madrid against French occupation marked the beginning of the War of Independence.