19th Century Revolutions, Unification, and American Expansion
19th Century Revolutions
The revolutions of the 19th century were largely reactions against the restoration of the Ancien Régime and the return to absolutism. Key ideologies driving these revolutions included:
- Liberalism: Advocated for national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy, separation of powers, limited suffrage, and freedoms of association, expression, and religion.
- Nationalism: Emphasized national sovereignty, independent nation-states, and a shared history, language, and culture among the population.
- Democracy: Promoted national sovereignty, republics, opposition to monarchy, universal manhood suffrage, and political parties defending the middle and working classes.
Revolutions of 1820 and 1830
The 1820s saw liberal revolutions in Portugal and Spain, aiming for constitutional monarchies. Greece achieved independence through a liberal/nationalist revolution. In 1830, France experienced nationalist revolutions that established a constitutional monarchy, while Belgium gained independence through its own nationalist revolution.
Revolutions of 1848
The revolutions of 1848, which swept through France, the Austrian Empire, the German Confederation, and Italy, largely failed. The exception was France, which established the Second Republic and universal manhood suffrage.
Unification of Italy and Germany
Italy and Germany were initially divided into independent states. Nationalist movements emerged during the first half of the 19th century, leading to the unification of these states into two new nation-states.
Italian Unification
The unification process was initiated by Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859. With support from France, King Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour successfully fought against Austria, expelling the Austrians from Lombardy. The Piedmontese then conquered the rest of the Italian peninsula, resulting in a unified Italy as a constitutional monarchy.
German Unification
Bismarck initiated the German unification process with a conflict against Denmark. After defeating Denmark, Prussia gained control and influence in northern Germany. France opposed this expansion, leading to the Franco-Prussian War, where France surrendered the region of Lorraine to Germany. Bismarck then established the Second Reich (German Empire).
19th Century America: Expansion and Conflict
The 19th century saw significant political and territorial changes in America. The population of the USA increased rapidly due to immigration from Europe, encouraging westward expansion. This expansion led to conflicts with Native Americans, resulting in the destruction of many tribes.
American Civil War
The primary cause of the American Civil War was the conflict between the northern states, which were hostile to slavery, and the southern states, which relied on slavery. The North won the war, leading to the establishment of universal manhood suffrage.
European Power Dynamics After Franco-Prussian War
After the end of the Franco-Prussian War, there were no major wars between European powers, but tensions increased. Many countries increased their production of arms and military equipment.
German Foreign Policy
German foreign policy can be divided into two phases:
- Bismarckian System: Bismarck established a system of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy to prevent wars.
- Policies of Wilhelm II: Wilhelm II abandoned the system of alliances and began a policy of expansionism (Weltpolitik), which created tension between European countries.
The First Spanish Republic and Restoration
The First Spanish Republic ended in 1874 with the proclamation of Alfonso XII, and Spain became a parliamentary monarchy, marking a period of stability.
Constitution and Political Landscape
- The Constitution of 1876 established limited male suffrage.
- There were two official political parties: Conservatives and Liberals.
- The King shared legislative power with the Cortes.
- The Carlist War ended in 1876 with the victory of Alfonso XII.
- Unofficial political groups (Republicans) opposed the government.
- Regionalist movements emerged in regions such as Andalusia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country.