19th Century Romanticism: History, Social & Cultural Change
XIX Century: Historical, Social & Cultural Transformations
Social and Political Upheaval
The 19th century was a period marked by significant social tensions, political turmoil, and transformative changes. The French Revolution (1789) triggered a profound crisis, leading to the dismantling of the ancien régime. Socially, the old estate system gave way to a class-based society, with the bourgeoisie (the aristocracy of money) replacing the nobility. This shift coincided with rapid industrial development and the rise of capitalism. Harsh working conditions led to social unrest and the emergence of the proletariat, who fought for their rights against the bourgeoisie.
Politically, liberal ideas, inspired by the Enlightenment, gained traction. These included popular sovereignty, individual freedom of thought, and freedom of expression. However, tensions persisted between absolutists and liberals. In the latter half of the century, more authoritarian governments, supported by the bourgeoisie, emerged. This era also witnessed the rise of nationalism, fueled by linguistic, cultural, and historical distinctions.
A Shift in Thought
The 19th century also experienced a crisis of Enlightenment rationalism. Following the death of Immanuel Kant, new philosophical currents emerged, including the idealism of Schelling and Hegel, which emphasized the power of the spirit, and the positivism of Auguste Comte, which focused on scientifically observable realities. This period saw advancements in scientific thought, including Claude Bernard’s methodology, Darwin’s theory of evolution, and Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Spain in the Nineteenth Century
Spain lagged behind the rest of Europe due to political tensions, economic stagnation, military pronouncements, and a lack of technological progress. The War of Independence against Napoleon Bonaparte (1808-1814) resulted in the abdication of Charles IV and the coronation of his brother, Joseph I. After the war, Ferdinand VII returned from exile, disregarded the liberal Constitution of 1812, and initiated an absolutist reign. This period saw a cultural decline due to the exile of intellectuals and censorship.
Upon Ferdinand VII’s death, a civil war erupted between Carlists (absolutists supporting his brother, Charles) and Elizabethans (liberals supporting his daughter, Isabel II). The Elizabethan victory was followed by the Glorious Revolution (1868), which led to Isabel II’s deposition and the tumultuous Revolutionary Sexenio (1868-1874). Attempts to maintain the monarchy with Amadeo I of Savoy failed, leading to the First Republic. This was followed by the restoration of the monarchy under Alfonso XII. The late 19th century saw Spain lose its colonies of Cuba and the Philippines.
The Romantic Movement
Origins and Development
Romanticism, a complex cultural movement, emerged in Europe during the first half of the 19th century, representing a revolution in aesthetics and ideology. It originated in Germany and England in the late 18th century. According to Alborg’s History of Spanish Literature, European Romanticism developed through several stages:
- Preromanticism: Early signs of romantic sensibility appeared in mid-18th century England, exemplified by Young’s Night Thoughts.
- German Romanticism: Following England, Romanticism flourished in Germany, originating from the Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) movement. The Jena group (early Romantics) further developed these principles, influenced by Kant and Hegel. Notable figures include Goethe (Werther) and Schiller (Faust, Don Carlos). The later Heidelberg group included Hoffmann and Heine, whose melancholic lyricism influenced Bécquer.
- Romanticism in England: Emerging around 1790 with the Lake Poets (Coleridge and Wordsworth), English Romanticism flourished with figures like Keats, Shelley, and Byron (whose Don Juan influenced Espronceda). Walter Scott pioneered the historical novel with works like Ivanhoe.
- Romanticism in France: A later movement, French Romanticism was influenced by Madame de Staël’s On Germany. Chateaubriand represented traditional Romanticism (Atala, The Genius of Christianity, René). Victor Hugo, a key figure in liberal Romanticism, achieved success with Hernani. Other notable works include Les Misérables and Notre Dame de Paris. Alexandre Dumas contributed with The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo. French Romanticism significantly influenced Spanish Romanticism.
Characteristics of Romanticism
- Irrationalism: A rejection of reason as the sole explanation for reality.
- Individualism and Subjectivism: Romantics embraced their individuality, leading to a sense of loneliness. Their works explored themes of dissatisfaction, passionate love, and the desire for freedom.
- Idealism: A preference for the ideal.
- The Creative Genius: Art as an expression of innate creative genius, valuing spontaneity and originality.
- Disenchantment: The clash between the self and reality led to disillusionment and rebellion against social norms.
- Evasion: Seeking refuge in the inner world, dreams, mystery, the supernatural, the past, and exotic locales.
- Nature: A shift from serene landscapes to a fascination with wild, untamed nature, reflecting the poet’s inner turmoil.
- Nationalism: A rejection of Enlightenment universalism, celebrating each nation’s unique customs and traditions.
Stylistic Renewal
Romanticism introduced stylistic innovations, including mixed genres, renewed metrics, and diverse verse forms in theater. The lexicon expanded with neologisms, archaisms, and foreign words. Rhetorical devices such as exclamations, hyperbole, and antithesis were employed to express intense emotions.
The Romantic Movement in Spain
According to Ángel del Río, Romanticism arrived later in Spain, emerging in the 1830s. Factors contributing to its introduction include the return of exiled liberals, the publication of the Duke of Rivas’ The Foundling Moor, and the influence of journalism. Scholars like Russell Sebold have identified proto-romantic elements in earlier Spanish writers. The movement was relatively short-lived, with Fernán Caballero’s The Seagull (1849) marking its decline, although figures like Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro (considered post-romantic) continued the tradition.
Spanish Romantic Poetry
Romantic poetry effectively captured the spirit of the movement. Themes included freedom, the ideal woman, heartbreak, melancholy, the supernatural, death, and exoticism. Formally, there was a focus on renewal, with new rhythms, varied meters, and cultured language. Spanish Romantic poetry encompassed both epic/narrative poetry (e.g., the Duke of Rivas’ The Foundling Moor, José Zorrilla’s works) and lyric poetry (e.g., Espronceda, Bécquer, Rosalía de Castro).
José de Espronceda
Espronceda, a prominent liberal Romantic poet, explored themes of rebellion and social critique. His work evolved through neoclassical, transitional, and Romantic phases, culminating in narrative poems like The Student of Salamanca and the unfinished The Devil World.
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
Bécquer, a master of intimate Romanticism, is considered a foundational figure in modern Spanish poetry. His Rhymes explore themes of love, loss, and the search for meaning. His prose works, including Legends, showcase his romantic sensibility.
Rosalía de Castro
Rosalía de Castro, known for her simple and intimate style, wrote in both Galician and Castilian. Her work revived Galician poetry and explored personal themes with deep emotion, anticipating later poetic trends.
By 1850, Romanticism had waned in most European countries, giving way to Realism and Naturalism.