19th Century Romanticism in Spain: Art, Literature, and Social Change
1. The 19th Century: A Time of Transformation
Social and Cultural Shifts
The 19th century was a period of significant social and political upheaval, marked by major changes across all spheres of life. The old estate system gave way to a class-based society, with the bourgeoisie replacing the nobility and gaining considerable power, becoming known as the ‘aristocracy of money’. Population growth was substantial, particularly in cities where large industries were established.
This era saw the rise of liberal ideas and parliamentary constitutional governments, which championed popular sovereignty and advocated for individual freedoms of thought and expression. Nationalism also emerged as a powerful force.
In the realm of art and literature, movements such as Romanticism, Realism, and Naturalism emerged, reflecting the social, artistic, and ideological revolutions of the time. A crisis of Enlightenment rationalism led to the exploration of new intellectual paths, including idealism and positivism. Science made extraordinary advancements, especially in fields like physics, medicine, and biology.
19th Century Spain
Spain experienced significant political tensions, economic stagnation, military uprisings, and a lack of technological progress, lagging behind other European nations. However, the latter half of the century witnessed improvements in agriculture, industry, and transport.
This period also saw a cultural decline, with many intellectuals going into exile due to increased censorship. The death of the King divided Spain into two camps, leading to the Carlist Wars between supporters of Isabella II and followers of Don Carlos. Isabella II eventually ascended to power, but Spain lost parts of its colonial empire, including the Philippines and Cuba.
During the Restoration, Spanish society underwent a major ideological transformation. Traditional ideas, represented by figures like Menéndez Pelayo, were challenged by a growing renewal movement known as Krausism, which advocated for a morality based on tolerance.
2. Romanticism: An Aesthetic and Ideological Revolution
Romanticism, a complex cultural movement that developed in Europe during the first half of the 19th century, represented a significant aesthetic and ideological shift. Originating in Germany and England, with key works like Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther and Faust, Romanticism emphasized:
- Individualism: The individual’s own goals and emotions took center stage. Artists expressed their feelings with a strong sense of self-importance, seeing themselves as intermediaries between art and humanity.
- Cult of Freedom: Individuals asserted their right to self-expression and individual liberty against societal constraints. Rejection of social and artistic rules led to inner restlessness and pessimism among artists.
- Rebellion and Contradictions: Romantics sought escape in the legendary past, exotic lands, or their inner selves.
- Nationalism: Romantic nationalism celebrated the nation by extolling traditional values and customs.
Romanticism in Spain
Romanticism arrived later in Spain, appearing in the 1830s. The new aesthetic was introduced through journalism, the return of exiled liberals (like Espronceda and Martínez de la Rosa) after the death of Ferdinand VII, and the premiere of the Duke of Rivas’ play Don Álvaro or the Force of Fate in 1835. However, the Romantic period in Spain was relatively short-lived, with the publication of Fernán Caballero’s novel La Gaviota (The Seagull) in 1849 marking its end.
3. Romantic Literature
Literary Themes
- The National or Regional Historical Past: Romantics drew inspiration from the Middle Ages, the Arab world, and literary figures like Don Quixote.
- Feelings over Reason: Melancholy, longing for unattainable happiness, individualism, rebellion, and love (often leading to disappointment) were prominent themes.
- Exaltation of Self and Devotion to Freedom: The artist, as hero, felt superior to the world and sought egocentric solitude.
- Social Conflicts: Inequality, nationalist consciousness, and humanitarian theories were also explored.
Romantic Aesthetics
Romantics sought artistic renewal by rejecting classical rules and embracing imagination, mixing styles, and experimenting with colors. Other key elements included:
- Atmosphere: Nature reflected the hero’s mood, with settings like wild seas, ruins, storms, night, and cities like Salamanca or Toledo.
- Fantasy: Romantic literature transcended reality, incorporating mystery, supernatural elements, and characters.
- Drama: Distorted forms and emotional intensity characterized the dramatic style.
- Rhetorical Style: Language was elaborate and exaggerated, using antepenultimate words, exclamations, antithesis, and other literary devices.
4. Romantic Poetry
Poetry, the ideal genre for expressing romantic rebellion and inner feelings, gained widespread popularity. Themes included freedom, emotions, the supernatural, death, and legends. Formal aspects involved a rejection of traditional rules, with new accentual rhythms and varied verse lengths creating a musical quality. The language was often religious and rhetorical.
Two main types of Romantic poetry emerged:
- Narrative-Epic: Heroic in tone, this type drew on tradition, history, or legend, and revived the romance form.
- Lyric: This type focused on the poet’s inner conflicts.
José de Espronceda: The Quintessential Spanish Romantic Poet
Espronceda’s work encompassed two main trends:
- Narrative Poetry: El estudiante de Salamanca (The Student of Salamanca) tells the story of Félix de Montemar, a Don Juan-esque seducer. El diablo mundo (The Devil World) reflects on human life.
- Lyric Poetry: Works like “The Pirate’s Song,” “The Beggar,” “The Executioner,” and the renowned “Canto a Teresa” (Song to Teresa), included in El diablo mundo, explore themes of disappointment and disillusionment.