19th Century Society & Politics: Transformations & Imperialism

Posted on Oct 13, 2024 in History

Economic and Social Transformations in 19th Century Spain

Economic Modernization

Spain’s economic development lagged behind other European countries. It remained primarily agricultural with delayed industrialization. However, the last quarter of the century saw social policies and economic changes that laid the groundwork for modernization.

Demographic Changes

Internal migration from rural areas to cities increased significantly. The agricultural sector employed around 65% of the workforce, highlighting the low level of industrialization. In contrast, Catalonia had 46% of its workforce in the industrial sector.

Agricultural Changes

Agriculture dominated the Spanish economy in the 19th century. Traditional arable production stagnated while modernized production of olives, vines, and citrus fruits increased. Land ownership remained concentrated in the hands of the aristocracy.

Industrial Changes

The Industrial Revolution in Spain was delayed compared to other European nations due to a lack of capital, technological backwardness, and limited demand for industrial products.

The Railway’s Impact

The railway’s development in Spain, like in other European countries, facilitated the integration of the domestic market. Goods could be transported more efficiently, but the railway system did not fully meet the demands of Spanish industrialization. Notably:

  1. Foreign companies primarily built the railway network in Spain.
  2. Foreign technicians were also employed.
  3. Tariffs on railway-related products were lowered.
  4. The railway network followed a radial design, prioritizing quantity over quality.
  5. The Spanish track gauge was wider than the European standard, possibly due to geographical factors.
  6. The cost per kilometer of railway lines was significantly higher in Spain compared to Europe.

Social Classes

  • Ruling Class: Held social, economic, and political power.
  • Middle Classes:
    • Upper-Middle: Professionals, voted conservatively.
    • Lower-Middle: Voted liberally and progressively.
  • Working Classes:
    • Urban: Employed in various sectors.
    • Rural: Agricultural laborers.

The Rise of Liberalism and Education

The liberal bourgeois ideology was influenced by Krausism, a philosophical movement that criticized religious education and advocated for secular education reform. This reform aimed to promote tolerance and freedom through free educational institutions, which in turn shaped an intellectual and professional elite who championed progressive ideals.

Art and Architecture

Architecture saw a coexistence of neoclassicism and romanticism, resulting in eclectic styles such as Gothic, Neo-Mudéjar, Neo-Romanesque, and Neo-Renaissance. In painting, popular themes included family portraits, historical events, exotic cultures, and Spanish landscapes. Notable examples include Joaquin Sorolla’s impressionist works depicting the sea and horseback riding.

The Reign of Isabella II and the Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy

Isabella’s Accession and the Carlist Wars

Isabella II inherited the throne in 1833 and initiated the establishment of a new liberal regime. The succession was contested by her uncle, Carlos, leading to the Carlist Wars. Isabella’s supporters, advocating for a liberal monarchy, emerged victorious.

Constitutional Monarchy and Bipartisanship

The old regime gradually disappeared with the separation of powers. The Queen held executive power, the legislature held legislative power, and the courts held judicial power. Liberalism developed into two main factions: the Moderate Party and the Progressive Party.

Constitutions and Confiscations

Two constitutions were enacted during this period, both upholding the principles of national sovereignty and equality before the law. These constitutions aimed to dismantle the social hierarchy of the old regime. Confiscations of church and state lands provided resources for economic development.

The Evolution of Liberalism and the Rise of Democracy

Democratic Liberalism

Liberalism in the 19th century evolved from doctrinaire liberalism to democratic liberalism, advocating for universal male suffrage. This shift was driven by liberal revolutions, increased literacy rates, urbanization, and the growth of the middle class. The demand for education and information surged, leading to compulsory primary education and the rise of the press. This fostered a culture of information and greater political participation.

The Victorian Era in Britain

Under Queen Victoria, the British parliamentary monarchy achieved remarkable stability. The two-party system, with the Conservative (Tory) and Liberal (Whig) parties alternating in power, flourished. Parliament consisted of the House of Lords and the House of Commons, with Benjamin Disraeli serving as a prominent Prime Minister.

The Third Republic in France

Following the Paris Commune uprising in 1871, the Third Republic was established in France. It aimed to create a democratic and republican regime, promoting secular education and asserting civilian control over the military and the church. This democratic, secular, and enlightened republic was known as the Radical Republic.

The United States and its Challenges

The United States experienced significant immigration from Europe. The two major political parties were the Republicans and the Democrats. Following the Civil War, the country underwent tremendous economic progress, but immigration also brought challenges related to public health and order. Immigrants often formed ethnic neighborhoods. In the Southern states, the abolition of slavery led to the disenfranchisement of African Americans and the rise of racial segregation and violence.

Imperialism: Causes and Types of Colonial Rule

Causes of Imperialism

  • Economic: The need for raw materials and new consumer markets drove European powers to seek control over foreign territories.
  • Demographic: European population growth led to emigration to newly industrialized countries and the establishment of colonies.
  • Political: Rivalry and competition among European powers fueled the desire for global influence and strategic control.
  • Ideological: A belief in European superiority and a civilizing mission justified the colonization of other parts of the world.

Types of Colonial Governance

  • Colonies: Areas where the weakness or perceived cultural backwardness of local powers allowed the colonizing power to exert complete control.
  • Protectorates: Territories where the colonizing power intervened minimally in local politics, focusing on economic exploitation and foreign relations.
  • Dominions: Primarily within the British Empire, these territories, often populated by European settlers, enjoyed significant autonomy and self-governance.

The Bismarckian System

Otto von Bismarck’s foreign policy aimed to maintain peace and stability in Europe through a complex system of alliances:

  • First System (1873): The Three Emperors’ League, consisting of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia.
  • Second System (1879-1882): The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary and the Triple Alliance, which included Italy. The Three Emperors’ League was renewed, and Germany formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary.
  • Third System (1887): The Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia and the Mediterranean Agreements.